Article(id=1148989444755088071, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148989441470952447, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12211/2096-8280.2023-054, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1691510400000, receivedDateStr=2023-08-09, revisedDate=1698854400000, revisedDateStr=2023-11-02, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1751870030821, onlineDateStr=2025-07-07, pubDate=1714406400000, pubDateStr=2024-04-30, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1751870030821, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-07, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1751870030821, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1751870030821, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1148989441470952447, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, year='2024', volume='5', issue='2', pageStart='217', pageEnd='395', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1751870030037, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1752057315553, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1149774973969068078, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148989441470952447, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1149774973969068079, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148989441470952447, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=338, endPage=352, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1149999703749390364, articleId=1148989444755088071, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, language=EN, title=Applications of synthetic biology in developing polysaccharide conjugate vaccines, columnId=1149894683619635652, journalTitle=Synthetic Biology Journal, columnName=Invited Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The precise design and synthesis of carbohydrates with important biological functions and more complex structures is a frontier in synthetic biology. Recently, a novel strategy named Protein Glycan Coupling Technology (PGCT) based on bacterial oligosaccharyltransferases has been developed and widely used in the biosynthesis of bacterial glycoconjugate vaccines, which are one of achievements in modern medicine due to their effectiveness in fighting against infectious diseases. Herein, progress in developing key components for manufacturing glycoconjugate vaccines, such as oligosaccharyltransferases (PglL, PglS, PglB, and TfmP), carrier proteins (CRM197, diphtheria toxoid, recombinant Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin A, and nanoparticles), polysaccharide biosynthesis gene circuits, and glyco-engineered strains is reviewed. Meanwhile, producing glycoconjugate vaccines through fermentation presents advantages in good product quality control for safety and efficacy, low production cost, and environmental-friendly manufacturing. PGCT has potentials to overcome some limitations of chemical conjugation production processes, such as complex purification and high cost, for competitiveness with existing chemical conjugates. As an emerging technology, more technological innovations are needed for PGCT. In the future, the directed evolution of oligosaccharyltransferases, the application of protein nanoparticle carriers, the combination rearrangement of glycosyltransferases, and the optimization of engineered bacterial strains with better metabolic pathways are expected to further promote the biosynthesis of conjugate vaccines. The next few years will be an important and exciting time for PGCT, as recent technological advances are being applied to the development of novel glycoconjugates, and ongoing large-scale clinic trials on the efficacy of glycoconjugate vaccines will also demonstrate the feasibility of this technology, making the future of PGCT vaccinology promising.

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由于合成生物学的快速发展,目前已经实现了人工设计DNA和蛋白质的合成,对具有重要生物学功能、结构也更为复杂的糖类物质进行精准设计合成,也将是合成生物学未来发展的重要方向。近年来,一种基于细菌寡糖转移酶体系的蛋白多糖偶联技术发展迅速,已被广泛应用于病原细菌多糖结合疫苗的生物合成制备。本文综述了该技术体系中的寡糖转移酶元件、载体蛋白元件、异源多糖抗原合成线路以及工程菌株改造等核心关键模块的最新研究进展。使用生物活体系统,发酵生产多糖结合疫苗,具有产物均一性好、步骤简便、绿色环保等优势,是一种亟待发展的新兴技术,同时也存在一些技术细节需要完善。未来,寡糖转移酶的定向进化、纳米颗粒型蛋白载体的应用、多糖合成基因的组合重排、工程菌株的代谢途径优化,将有望进一步促进多糖结合疫苗的生物合成研究。

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王恒樑(1971—),男,博士,研究员,博士生导师。军事科学院军事医学研究院生物工程研究所副所长,病原微生物生物安全国家重点实验室副主任。主要从事病原细菌致病机理及基因工程疫苗研究。E-mail:
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叶精勤(1996—),女,博士研究生。研究方向为传染病疫苗研究。E-mail:

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Summary of carrier proteins used in polysaccharide conjugate vaccines

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
菌株 抗原 载体蛋白 偶联技术 研究阶段
B型流感嗜血杆菌 天然多糖 TT 化学偶联 已授权
寡糖 CRM197 化学偶联 已授权
C型脑膜炎奈瑟氏菌 天然多糖 TT 化学偶联 已授权
寡糖 CRM197 化学偶联 已授权
ACWY型脑膜炎奈瑟氏菌 寡糖 CRM197 化学偶联 已授权
肺炎链球菌 天然多糖 PD, DT, TT 化学偶联 已授权
肺炎链球菌 天然多糖 链霉亲和素融合蛋白 生物偶联 临床Ⅱ期
肠外致病大肠杆菌 寡糖 EPA 生物偶联 临床Ⅲ期
志贺氏菌2a 寡糖 EPA 生物偶联 临床Ⅰ期
寡糖 TT 化学反应 临床Ⅰ期
肺炎克雷伯氏菌 O-抗原寡糖 EPA 生物偶联 临床Ⅰ期
), ArticleFig(id=1172891866065420640, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148989444755088071, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

多糖结合疫苗中所采用的载体蛋白情况汇总

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
菌株 抗原 载体蛋白 偶联技术 研究阶段
B型流感嗜血杆菌 天然多糖 TT 化学偶联 已授权
寡糖 CRM197 化学偶联 已授权
C型脑膜炎奈瑟氏菌 天然多糖 TT 化学偶联 已授权
寡糖 CRM197 化学偶联 已授权
ACWY型脑膜炎奈瑟氏菌 寡糖 CRM197 化学偶联 已授权
肺炎链球菌 天然多糖 PD, DT, TT 化学偶联 已授权
肺炎链球菌 天然多糖 链霉亲和素融合蛋白 生物偶联 临床Ⅱ期
肠外致病大肠杆菌 寡糖 EPA 生物偶联 临床Ⅲ期
志贺氏菌2a 寡糖 EPA 生物偶联 临床Ⅰ期
寡糖 TT 化学反应 临床Ⅰ期
肺炎克雷伯氏菌 O-抗原寡糖 EPA 生物偶联 临床Ⅰ期
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合成生物学在多糖结合疫苗研发中的应用
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叶精勤 , 黄文华 , 潘超 , 朱力 , 王恒樑
合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024,5(2): 338-352
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合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024, 5(2): 338-352
合成生物学在多糖结合疫苗研发中的应用
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叶精勤 , 黄文华, 潘超, 朱力, 王恒樑
作者信息
  • 军事科学院军事医学研究院,病原微生物生物安全全国重点实验室,北京 100071
  • 叶精勤(1996—),女,博士研究生。研究方向为传染病疫苗研究。E-mail:

通讯作者:

王恒樑(1971—),男,博士,研究员,博士生导师。军事科学院军事医学研究院生物工程研究所副所长,病原微生物生物安全国家重点实验室副主任。主要从事病原细菌致病机理及基因工程疫苗研究。E-mail:
Applications of synthetic biology in developing polysaccharide conjugate vaccines
Jingqin YE , Wenhua HUANG, Chao PAN, Li ZHU, Hengliang WANG
Affiliations
  • State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity,Academy of Military Medical Sciences,Academy of Military Sciences,Beijing 100071,China
出版时间: 2024-04-30 doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-054
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由于合成生物学的快速发展,目前已经实现了人工设计DNA和蛋白质的合成,对具有重要生物学功能、结构也更为复杂的糖类物质进行精准设计合成,也将是合成生物学未来发展的重要方向。近年来,一种基于细菌寡糖转移酶体系的蛋白多糖偶联技术发展迅速,已被广泛应用于病原细菌多糖结合疫苗的生物合成制备。本文综述了该技术体系中的寡糖转移酶元件、载体蛋白元件、异源多糖抗原合成线路以及工程菌株改造等核心关键模块的最新研究进展。使用生物活体系统,发酵生产多糖结合疫苗,具有产物均一性好、步骤简便、绿色环保等优势,是一种亟待发展的新兴技术,同时也存在一些技术细节需要完善。未来,寡糖转移酶的定向进化、纳米颗粒型蛋白载体的应用、多糖合成基因的组合重排、工程菌株的代谢途径优化,将有望进一步促进多糖结合疫苗的生物合成研究。

糖合成生物学  /  多糖结合疫苗  /  蛋白多糖偶联技术  /  寡糖转移酶

The precise design and synthesis of carbohydrates with important biological functions and more complex structures is a frontier in synthetic biology. Recently, a novel strategy named Protein Glycan Coupling Technology (PGCT) based on bacterial oligosaccharyltransferases has been developed and widely used in the biosynthesis of bacterial glycoconjugate vaccines, which are one of achievements in modern medicine due to their effectiveness in fighting against infectious diseases. Herein, progress in developing key components for manufacturing glycoconjugate vaccines, such as oligosaccharyltransferases (PglL, PglS, PglB, and TfmP), carrier proteins (CRM197, diphtheria toxoid, recombinant Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin A, and nanoparticles), polysaccharide biosynthesis gene circuits, and glyco-engineered strains is reviewed. Meanwhile, producing glycoconjugate vaccines through fermentation presents advantages in good product quality control for safety and efficacy, low production cost, and environmental-friendly manufacturing. PGCT has potentials to overcome some limitations of chemical conjugation production processes, such as complex purification and high cost, for competitiveness with existing chemical conjugates. As an emerging technology, more technological innovations are needed for PGCT. In the future, the directed evolution of oligosaccharyltransferases, the application of protein nanoparticle carriers, the combination rearrangement of glycosyltransferases, and the optimization of engineered bacterial strains with better metabolic pathways are expected to further promote the biosynthesis of conjugate vaccines. The next few years will be an important and exciting time for PGCT, as recent technological advances are being applied to the development of novel glycoconjugates, and ongoing large-scale clinic trials on the efficacy of glycoconjugate vaccines will also demonstrate the feasibility of this technology, making the future of PGCT vaccinology promising.

synthetic glycobiology  /  conjugate vaccine  /  protein glycan coupling technology (PGCT)  /  oligosaccharyltransferases
叶精勤, 黄文华, 潘超, 朱力, 王恒樑. 合成生物学在多糖结合疫苗研发中的应用. 合成生物学, 2024 , 5 (2) : 338 -352 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-054
Jingqin YE, Wenhua HUANG, Chao PAN, Li ZHU, Hengliang WANG. Applications of synthetic biology in developing polysaccharide conjugate vaccines[J]. Synthetic Biology Journal, 2024 , 5 (2) : 338 -352 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-054
合成生物学的发展,实现了人类对生命密码从“读”到“写”的跨越,为有目标地设计、改造、重构生命提供了新工具和新思路。合成生物学在构建工程化生命系统方面取得的巨大进步,已经为工业生物技术、生物医药、医疗诊断、生物燃料、食品与农业、环境生物技术等领域提供了一系列全新解决方案,实现了相关产品高效、低成本、绿色可持续的商业化制造与生产1-2。尽管目前报道的代表性工作主要集中在核酸、蛋白质及代谢物的人工设计合成方向,不过合成生物学也正逐步应用于更为复杂的糖类物质设计合成,催生了“糖合成生物学”这一新兴领域。即,使用合成生物学工具和策略,开展特定糖链(特别是锚定于蛋白质上的糖链)的工程化设计和制造的研究。
核酸、蛋白质、糖和脂类是构成生命体的最为重要和基础的四大类物质。其中,核酸仅有4种基础分子,蛋白质由20种基础氨基酸排列组合而成,而糖类结构却异常复杂:不仅包括种类繁多的基础单糖(目前已知的单糖有200多种)及其排列顺序,还包括各种糖基的环化形式、异头体构型、各糖基之间的连接方式等等。多糖和糖基化的生物分子直接参与了几乎所有的生物反应过程,与人类的疾病和健康密切相关3。真核生物的蛋白有一半以上都是经过糖基化修饰的,糖基化修饰对蛋白质的折叠和功能性有重要影响4-5。特别是,细胞表面蛋白和胞外蛋白的糖基化修饰程度很高,在细胞间信号传导、宿主与病原体相互作用及免疫反应中都有重要的作用6-11。目前,超过70%已授权的和临床前研究的蛋白类治疗性药物都是经过糖基化的,尤其是在抗体药物和疫苗应用中,糖基化修饰的过程是需要严格控制的1012-15。因此,设计并生产结构均一的含糖功能分子(特别是糖蛋白)是合成生物学未来发展的一个重要方向,同时也是一个巨大挑战。目前,糖合成生物学已经在治疗性抗体分子的糖型改造、糖疫苗、感染诊断、自组装生物材料等方面取得了一定突破,本文重点关注和综述近年来合成生物学在多糖结合疫苗研发领域中的应用。
在疫苗研制过程中,有效的抗原靶点选择是至关重要的一步,寻找特异性强、覆盖面广的抗原靶标,能够使后续的疫苗研发工作事半功倍。细菌表面的多糖主要包括脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide, LPS)、荚膜多糖(capsular polysaccharide,CPS)和胞外多糖(extracellular polysaccharide,EPS)等,具有很强的抗原特异性,能够诱导机体产生高效保护性抗体。LPS是一种由脂质A、核心寡糖和O-抗原多糖(O-antigen polysaccharide,OPS)三个结构组成的糖脂,其中,O-抗原多糖的差异是LPS多样性的主要原因,也是病原细菌血清型分类的依据。同时,细菌的外表面通常被大量的CPS所包裹,参与生物黏附并导致免疫逃逸16
目前,CPS和OPS作为有效抗原已被成功应用在细菌疫苗研发中17。然而,单独的多糖为T细胞非依赖抗原,机体在其免疫过程中没有T细胞参与,无法产生高亲和力的抗体和免疫记忆,同时由于婴幼儿免疫系统尚未发育完善,所以多糖疫苗对2岁以下婴幼儿几乎无效。为解决这一问题,研究者将细菌表面多糖与非糖单元(多为蛋白)共价连接,形成多糖结合疫苗(conjugate vaccine),有效提高了多糖的免疫原性。这些非糖单元(如底物蛋白)的存在,在免疫过程中可促使 T 细胞分化,从而将多糖转换为 T 细胞依赖型抗原,激发体液免疫,产生高亲和力的抗体,形成免疫记忆。目前,已经上市的多糖结合疫苗主要针对肺炎链球菌、流感嗜血杆菌、脑膜炎奈瑟氏球菌以及伤寒沙门氏菌。
传统的多糖结合疫苗采用化学交联方法制备,需要分别对病原菌的多糖抗原和目标载体蛋白进行表达和纯化,再利用化学试剂分别对多糖和蛋白进行活化和交联,最后对交联产物再次纯化,从而获得疫苗终产品。这一方法涉及多步纯化,导致生产成本高昂,疫苗价格昂贵。同时,由于化学活化位点随机,多糖与蛋白之间的连接位点以及每个蛋白上连接的多糖数量并不明确,使得疫苗产品均一性不足,通常只能以多糖与蛋白含量之比作为核心质控标准。此外,传统制备过程中涉及到致病菌的大规模培养和化学试剂的使用,这对生物安全和环境保护提出了较高的要求,也进一步提高了生产成本。近年来,基于合成生物学策略的新型生物偶联多糖结合疫苗(bioconjugate vaccine)的快速发展,有望利用定向改造工程菌株,通过简单的一步发酵和纯化获得目标产品,为解决上述问题提供了崭新的思路。
糖基化修饰是生物体中蛋白质翻译后修饰的一种重要形式,主要可分为N-连接糖基化修饰和O-连接糖基化修饰两种:在N-糖基化修饰中,糖链与蛋白质序列中天冬酰胺的氨基共价连接;而在O-糖基化修饰中,糖链与蛋白质序列中丝氨酸或苏氨酸的羟基共价连接。真核生物的蛋白糖基化修饰已经得到了广泛而深入的研究,而细菌中蛋白糖基化系统发现较晚,直到1999年,研究人员首次在空肠弯曲杆菌(Campylobacter jejuni)中发现了蛋白质N-糖基化修饰的现象18,并于2000年明确了催化蛋白质发生糖基化修饰的细菌寡糖转移酶(oligosaccharyl transferase, OST)的基因序列19,从而揭开了细菌蛋白糖基化修饰研究的序幕。在之后的二十多年里,研究人员在脑膜炎奈瑟氏球菌、霍乱弧菌、贝氏不动杆菌、土拉弗朗西斯菌等多种细菌中均报道了蛋白糖基化修饰的存在,发现并证实了一系列新型蛋白OST。2005年,Feldman团队20首次在大肠杆菌中利用空肠弯曲杆菌的蛋白糖基化系统,将大肠杆菌O7血清型多糖连接到该OST系统的天然底物蛋白AcrA上,得到了针对大肠杆菌O7的多糖蛋白结合蛋白,正式开启了利用细菌OST系统合成制备多糖结合疫苗的时代。
多糖抗原合成基因簇编码的多种糖基转移酶催化了从单糖到完整多糖抗原的合成途径21。这些多糖的合成主要依赖三种途径,分别为Wzy途径、ATP结合盒式(ATP-binding cassette, ABC)转运途径及合成酶途径22。在前两种途径中,组装好的糖链连接在细胞内膜上的十一异戊烯醇焦磷酸(undecaprenyl pyrophosphate, Und-PP)载体上,而该结构可以被特殊的蛋白OST所识别,并将组装后的糖链共价连接至底物蛋白上,从而完成糖蛋白的制备。因此,通过将目的多糖合成基因簇、特定OST、融合有对应识别基序(sequon)的载体蛋白,共表达于改造后的大肠杆菌等工程菌株中,即可完成多糖与蛋白的共价连接,实现多糖结合疫苗的生物合成。这种在细菌菌体内,基于蛋白OST一步完成多糖与目的蛋白共价偶联的技术,被称为蛋白多糖偶联技术(protein glycan coupling technology, PGCT)。如图1所示,PGCT技术中涉及2种核心元件(蛋白OST和载体蛋白)、1条异源基因线路以及糖基工程菌株的改造。
不同蛋白OST催化的糖基化修饰类型及其识别转运的糖链种类也有所区别。空肠弯曲杆菌中的PglB,是第一个被发现并证实的细菌OST。在之后的二十多年里,研究人员在不同细菌中发现了一系列新型的OST基因。根据OST的糖基化修饰类型以及识别转运的糖链种类进行分类,目前已报道了四种可以用于多糖结合疫苗制备的OST,分别是PglB、PglL、PglS和Tfpm。其中N-糖基化修饰的PglB与其他三种介导O-糖基化修饰的OST进化关系较远。以下主要对这四种具有代表性的蛋白OST研究进展进行简要介绍。
来自空肠弯曲杆菌的PglB是第一个被证实的OST,可以催化蛋白产生N-糖基化修饰。PglB可以识别并转运的糖链特征为:还原端第一个单糖的C2位被乙酰化修饰,且前两个单糖之间不是β-1,4糖苷键连接。2006年,Kowarik等23证实PglB识别的糖基化基序为D/E-X1-N-X2-S/T,其中X1和X2可以为脯氨酸之外的任何氨基酸,颇为宽松和相对较短的糖基化基序给PglB的应用提供了很大的便利。2005年,Feldman团队20首次利用PglB在大肠杆菌菌体内实现了多糖的转移,随着PglB识别基序的明确,研究人员将这一糖基化基序与疫苗载体蛋白融合表达,实现了真正意义上的多糖结合疫苗一步制备。2010年Ihssen团队在大肠杆菌中利用该系统将Ⅰ型痢疾志贺氏菌的OPS连接至重组铜绿假单胞菌外毒素A(recombinant Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin A, rEPA)上24,该疫苗目前已经完成Ⅰ期临床试验,安全性和免疫原性均表现良好25。Ravenscroft等26采用相同的方案,制备了福氏志贺氏菌2a血清型的多糖结合疫苗,目前正在开展Ⅱb期临床试验。肠外致病性大肠杆菌每年会造成大量的尿路感染和菌血症病例,van den Dobbelsteen等27同样以rEPA为载体蛋白,研制了一种同时针对O1、O2、O6、O25a血清型大肠杆菌的四价多糖结合疫苗,动物实验结果显示出了良好的安全性和免疫保护效果,目前正在开展Ⅱ期临床试验。
值得一提的是,该系统可以很好地解决土拉弗朗西斯菌、类鼻疽伯克霍尔德菌等这类难培养、高生物安全风险细菌的多糖结合疫苗的制备问题。Marshall等28在大肠杆菌中将土拉弗朗西斯菌的OPS连接至rEPA载体蛋白上,动物实验表明该疫苗可以有效保护大鼠抵抗土拉弗朗西斯菌高毒力株的感染(50%存活)。Feldman团队29将类鼻疽伯克霍尔德菌OPS连接至底物蛋白AcrA上,得到的多糖结合蛋白可以显著延长小鼠的存活时间。此外,PglB系统在布鲁氏菌30、金黄色葡萄球菌31以及肺炎链球菌32等重要细菌多糖结合疫苗的研制方面也见报道。
OST是一类多次跨膜蛋白,晶体结构解析十分困难,PglB是目前唯一有晶体结构的细菌OST。2011年,Lizak等33解析了PglB与其糖基化基序短肽复合物的晶体结构,揭示了OST活性口袋区域及催化位点。2017年,该团队进一步解析了PglB、底物短肽及寡糖类似物复合物的晶体结构,阐明了EL5结构域在酶催化过程中的重要作用,明确了OST与短肽、寡糖相互作用位点,为PglB的理性改造提供了理论基础34。基于上述研究成果,Ihssen团队35对酶与寡糖相互作用位点进行了联合突变,筛选出了糖基化效率更好、能识别糖链还原端单糖为半乳糖的OST,扩展了PglB系统的应用场景。
与PglB介导的N-糖基化修饰不同,PglL可以介导细菌蛋白的O-糖基化修饰。Stimson等36发现脑膜炎奈瑟氏球菌Ⅳ型菌毛蛋白PilE天然存在O-糖基化修饰;2007年,Feldman团队37发现并证实该O-糖基化修饰是由PglL介导催化的。与PglB系统类似,Feldman团队37-38将脑膜炎奈瑟氏球菌PglL和其天然底物蛋白PilE共表达于大肠杆菌中,成功将大肠杆菌O2、O7、O16以及鼠伤寒沙门氏菌等多种类型的OPS共价连接至PilE蛋白上。这一结果证明,与PglB相比,脑膜炎奈瑟氏球菌PglL表现出了更广泛的底物适用性,可以识别转运还原端单糖为半乳糖的糖链38,大大扩展了PGCT技术的应用范围。
然而,PglL的糖基化底物蛋白种类众多,其糖基化基序并不保守,这给该系统的推广应用带来很大的不便。本团队针对这一问题,聚焦PilE底物蛋白,首次证实了利用该蛋白的45~73位肽段与rEPA蛋白N端或霍乱毒素B亚基(cholera toxin B subunit, CTB)C端融合表达,可以很好地实现底物蛋白的糖基化39。我们进一步将其糖基化基序缩短至8个氨基酸39,为该系统的推广使用及疫苗的人工设计优化奠定了基础。基于PglL系统,本团队已经成功制备了志贺氏菌39、甲型副伤寒沙门氏菌40、布鲁氏菌41、肺炎克雷伯氏菌42等多种重要细菌多糖结合疫苗,动物实验均表现出了良好的免疫保护效果。
在结构研究方面,PglL尚无实验获得的结构报道。Schulz等43发现此类PglL在结构上均含有PglL_A结构域,该特点可以很好地将OST和O-抗原连接酶区分开。随后,研究人员在霍乱弧菌、伯克霍尔德菌属以及青枯雷尔氏菌中均发现了PglL类似物,并证实了其均可以在大肠杆菌中实现对长糖链的识别转移44-45。Hadjineophytou等46分析发现奈瑟氏菌属不同菌种之间的PglL均包含13个跨膜结构和3个细胞周质内的loop环,并且通过交换后面两个loop环序列,可以改变PglL识别的底物序列。这也提示我们可以通过理性设计,对不同来源的OST的结构域进行重构,实现OST的升级改造。
尽管PglB和PglL系统可以实现很多病原细菌表面抗原糖链的识别转运,但是无法识别还原端单糖为葡萄糖的糖链。同时,很多危害严重的病原细菌,如无乳链球菌、肺炎链球菌和肺炎克雷伯氏菌都会产生还原端单糖为葡萄糖的CPS,因此,一定程度上限制了该技术的应用。2013年,Feldman团队47在贝氏不动杆菌ADP1菌株中发现了一类新的OST(PglS),能够使菌毛样蛋白ComP发生特异性的O-糖基化修饰。2019年,该团队通过将PglS、融合ComP的rEPA蛋白以及肺炎链球菌8、9Ⅴ、14型荚膜多糖合成基因簇共表达于大肠杆菌中,证明了PglS可以识别并转运还原端单糖为葡萄糖的糖链,成功制备了三价肺炎链球菌多糖结合疫苗48
PglS的发现,解决了之前还原端单糖为葡萄糖的糖链无法被识别转运的痛点,但尚存在PglS识别基序不明确的问题需要解决。2021年,Harding团队49证实将ComP蛋白的69~93位肽段(C1)融合表达于白喉毒素突变体(CRM197)的N端或C端,均可以被PglS识别并发生糖基化修饰,同时结合rEPA蛋白结构进行理性设计,将C1肽段插入rEPA的489、490位氨基酸之间,可以实现底物蛋白的糖基化,这些研究为PglS系统的进一步推广使用奠定了坚实基础。在之后的研究中,该团队基于PglS系统完成了三价无乳链球菌多糖结合疫苗、肺炎克雷伯氏菌多糖二价多糖结合疫苗制备50-51,动物实验均表现出了良好的保护效果。
2023年,Harding团队52最新报道了一种在奥斯陆莫拉菌中发现的新型OST——TfpM,该酶同样可以识别包括还原端单糖为葡萄糖在内的多种糖链。与PglS不同的是,该酶的分子量较小,且其糖基化位点为菌毛蛋白C端的苏氨酸。该团队确定了TfpM的糖基化基序Pil20,并将其与rEPA融合表达后,成功制备了无乳链球菌Ⅲ型、大肠杆菌O16型、肺炎克雷伯氏菌O2型、肠道沙门氏菌在内的多种菌株的多糖结合疫苗。值得一提的是,该系统可以和PglS系统联合使用,通过将PglS系统、TfpM系统糖基化基序同时融合表达在载体蛋白上,可以使载体蛋白同时被两种酶进行糖基化修饰,从而提高产物的糖/蛋白摩尔比。
除了上述四种已经用于制备多糖结合疫苗的OST外,还有一些其他被报道的OST也具有类似的催化活性,但尚未应用于疫苗研究。研究人员在铜绿假单胞菌中发现了PilO,可以使Ⅳ型菌毛蛋白PilA发生O-糖基化修饰。与PglL系统类似,PilO系统具有广泛的糖链底物适用性,然而该系统不能转运大于2个单糖的糖链,在多糖结合疫苗研制中的应用受到了严重限制53-54。此外,OST在革兰氏阳性菌中也有类似报道。蜂房类芽孢杆菌中的WsfB可以把该菌连接在Und-PP上的还原端单糖为半乳糖的糖链共价连接到S层蛋白的酪氨酸残基上55。艰难梭菌630菌株中CD0240可以将还原端为N-乙酰己糖胺的三糖转运至鞭毛蛋白FliC55,炭疽芽孢杆菌中存在OST可以将糖链共价连接至BlcA蛋白56。总体而言,目前关于革兰氏阳性菌的OST系统研究还不够深入,还有很多方向值得进一步探索。
目前,已获许可或正在临床阶段的多糖结合疫苗产品中,使用的载体蛋白主要有7种:减毒白喉毒素(CRM197),破伤风类毒素(tetanus toxoid,TT),白喉类毒素(diphtheria toxoid,DT),脑膜炎球菌外膜蛋白复合物,流感嗜血杆菌蛋白D(haemophilus influenzae protein, HiD),铜绿假单胞菌外毒素A(Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin A, EPA),蛋白质D(protein D, PD)。其中前三种是最为常用的载体蛋白。目前,正在进行研发及临床试验的多糖结合疫苗中采用的蛋白载体2657-67表1所示。
载体蛋白通过共价键与多糖抗原结合,在抗原提呈细胞中水解后能够通过主要组织相容性复合体(major histocompatibility complex, MHC)Ⅱ类分子为CD4+ T 细胞提供多肽表位,促进特异B细胞的分化成熟并形成记忆。因此,载体蛋白本身也会刺激机体产生免疫应答,重复多次免疫含有相同蛋白载体的多糖蛋白结合物,会使机体对多糖抗原的特异性免疫响应降低,这一现象被称为载体诱导的表位抑制。为了避免这一现象的发生,需要开发更多种类的载体蛋白或者新型载体系统,通过不同载体蛋白的组合使用获得更好的免疫效果。
在早期多糖结合疫苗研究中,研究者广泛使用了牛血清白蛋白、血蓝蛋白等分子量较大的蛋白作为多糖抗原的载体进行免疫原性探索,这些蛋白能够提供较多的赖氨酸残基用于偶联多糖抗原。与常规化学交联方法不同,在PGCT技术中多糖抗原与载体的偶联位点是准确可控的,因此载体蛋白的分子量不再是重要因素,糖/蛋白比这一经典质控指标是否适用于PGCT产品值得商榷。从上述技术特点出发,对于PGCT技术而言,选择一种带有佐剂效应的蛋白作为载体,能够更有效提升疫苗的效果。基于以上观点,本团队评估了CTB作为PGCT技术中新载体蛋白的可行性。实验结果显示,由于CTB能够与细胞表面的神经节苷脂GM1受体分子结合介导内吞,因而其作为载体蛋白的免疫效果优于常规的rEPA载体蛋白39。事实上,CTB蛋白具有黏膜免疫佐剂效应,作为多糖结合疫苗载体,在化学偶联策略中也有报道。例如,与CTB偶联的B族链球菌(Streptococcus agalactiae, GBS)Ⅲ型CPS(460 kDa),在鼻内免疫后,能够诱导小鼠肺和阴道中的IgG和IgA反应,效果优于常用的TT蛋白68
另一种有前途的载体设计策略是利用病原细菌来源的蛋白抗原作为载体蛋白。这种载体蛋白兼有抗原属性和免疫刺激作用,从而可以构建出含有两种不同类型抗原的新型疫苗69,起到“一石二鸟”的作用。Romano等70将艰难梭菌TcdB_GT重组毒素作为载体蛋白,与艰难梭菌多糖抗原PSⅡ偶联,能够在小鼠中产生与经典载体蛋白CRM197-PSⅡ偶联物相似的抗多糖IgG水平。Nilo等71的研究也证明,GBSⅤ型CPS与病原菌来源的GBS67蛋白、菌毛蛋白GBS80偶联,疫苗的免疫效果与经典CRM197载体偶联物相似。这些研究说明,采用菌种特异性蛋白作为多糖结合疫苗的载体蛋白,并不会降低多糖抗原的免疫原性。因此,使用已证明具有免疫原性的同菌种蛋白作为PGCT技术中的载体蛋白,也将是未来疫苗设计的一个重要方向。
近十年来,纳米技术的迅速发展催生了一个非常活跃的研究领域——纳米疫苗学,其中蛋白质纳米载体因为其出色的生物相容性而受到广泛关注。纳米疫苗能够在纳米颗粒表面高度重复呈现抗原,构成特殊的病原体相关分子模式(pathogen-associated molecular pattern, PAMP),模拟天然微生物侵染,从而有利于抗原提呈细胞的成熟,并刺激产生较强的B细胞和T细胞反应,有效提升了亚单位疫苗的抗体效价72。同时,纳米颗粒在注射后还能够快速进入淋巴循环系统,不会引起注射部位的细胞坏死和炎症反应,副作用更小72。也就是说,纳米颗粒既可以作为投递系统增强抗原的递送,还可以借助其微观尺度效应(抗原提呈细胞会优先摄取20~200 nm异物)和抗原重复展示效应,成为一种有效的分子内免疫佐剂。特别是,蛋白质纳米颗粒具有良好的生物兼容性和安全性,有望直接作为多糖结合疫苗的底物蛋白使用,兼具载体和佐剂的双重功能。
病毒样颗粒(virus-like particle, VLP)是常用的天然蛋白纳米载体骨架,是从缺乏传染性的病毒中分离的蛋白质结构,其表面具有与病毒表面组成相似的PAMP,在增强天然免疫的同时不具有传染性,因而具有良好的免疫增强效果和佐剂效应73。其装载抗原的方式可分为两种:①通过基因工程的方式融合表达抗原,将异源抗原装载到VLP上。如将编码新冠病毒RBD结构域的基因转入减毒的H1N1流感病毒骨架(缺失NS1)上,构建减毒流感病毒载体的新冠肺炎疫苗74。②通过在载体上表达接头,体外连接抗原。目前,基于即插即用(plug and display)系统开发的Tag和Catcher两种多肽,能够在融合表达“Catcher”的VLP与带有“Tag”的抗原之间形成异肽键共价连接75。这些策略同样可以与PGCT技术联合使用。例如,我们通过分别表达蛋白颗粒AP205-SpyTag(ST)、利用PGCT技术制备志贺氏菌多糖抗原- SpyCatcher偶联物(SC-OPS),再借助SC和ST的体外自发偶联,即可将多糖抗原和VLP颗粒相连接,构建纳米尺度的多糖结合疫苗,从而刺激小鼠产生高滴度中和抗体76
在蛋白纳米载体设计方面,除来自天然的蛋白纳米颗粒外,本团队利用具有佐剂效应的细菌毒素CTB和非天然三聚体肽Tri序列,设计构建了能够自组装形成20~30 nm纳米颗粒的半天然/半人工纳米载体77。该纳米载体可以在大肠杆菌和其他工程化病原菌中表达,利用PGCT技术体系装载病原细菌多糖抗原,得到纳米多糖结合疫苗78,实现了经典“多糖结合疫苗”(conjugate vaccine)到“生物交联纳米多糖结合疫苗”(bioconjugate nanovaccine)的跨越式发展。这种策略对于结构简单的低免疫原性多糖抗原,具有显著的免疫增强效果,例如装载肺炎克雷伯氏菌OPS,能够显著增强特异性体液免疫和细胞免疫应答79,可以有效保护小鼠抵抗肺炎克雷伯氏菌腹腔攻毒(100%存活)和肺部吸入攻毒(60%存活)。同时,该平台中的蛋白骨架部分还可以替换成其他同类细菌毒素结构,制备具有不同蛋白序列的自组装蛋白(LTB,LTⅡB和STxB等),能够有效避免多次接种过程中同一序列纳米载体上优势抗原表位抑制目标抗原免疫的问题。
总之,基于蛋白颗粒载体的纳米多糖结合疫苗,采用模块化设计策略可以实现蛋白骨架与抗原的灵活组装,实现按需构建疫苗。例如,除前文述及的SC/ST外,在载体上还可以融合表达具有其他接连方式的接头(SnoopCatcher/SnoopTag、单链链霉亲和素80等),通过体外与带有相应接头的多糖抗原相结合,就能够快速构建纳米尺度的多糖结合疫苗。
目前基于合成生物学策略的多糖结合疫苗制备模式主要是通过两种策略合成多糖抗原:直接在减毒株中利用原有的多糖抗原合成途径,或完整克隆已报道的多糖合成基因簇至大肠杆菌中进行异源表达。前者无需进行大片段异源基因簇的克隆表达,但是需要针对不同目标产品分别进行病原细菌的减毒、大规模培养条件优化。因此,该策略比较适合基因编辑工具成熟的肠杆菌科细菌疫苗研发,而对于土拉弗朗西斯菌、类鼻疽伯克霍尔德菌等难以培养的高致病性病原的疫苗研发来说,并无明显优势。合成生物学促进了第二种策略的快速发展和升级,目前的研究已经从最初经典的通过PCR方法克隆全长基因簇,步入了多糖合成基因簇异源重构和改造的新时代。
合成生物学引入了“重构”的概念,能够有效解决复杂的多基因系统异源表达问题81-82:可以通过将基因簇中的每个基因进行模块化拆分,利用分步DNA组装方法,将启动子、核糖体结合位点(ribosome-binding site, RBS)和终止子等基础转录翻译元件与每个功能基因进行组合,实现自下而上的人工设计重构82-83。这种利用模块化基因,分层次组装的策略,与全基因簇克隆为单个连续片段的方法相比,有助于分析和识别可能存在问题的元件,并能够通过迭代工程循环高效地优化表达。
Taylor等84-85利用该策略在大肠杆菌中重新组装了空肠弯曲杆菌N-糖基化基因簇(pgl)的异源生物合成途径,完整复现了空肠弯曲杆菌的七糖结构。该团队选取了合成空肠弯曲杆菌七糖所必需的10个基因进行通路重构,其中每一个基因都使用组成型启动子和不同强度的RBS进行组装。通过糖结构鉴定和糖产量比较发现,人工设计重构的七糖生物合成基因簇能够提高目标寡糖的合成量;在此基础上,利用PglB系统制备的多糖蛋白结合物的产量也有增加。
事实上,合成生物技术的进步,使各种不同来源的糖基转移酶(glycosyltransferase, GT)、侧链修饰酶通过重排制造人工设计的多糖结构成为了可能。例如,GSK公司科研团队分析了志贺氏菌的各个血清学多糖抗原的结构,通过人工理性设计,获得了一种非天然的多糖结构86。该多糖结构作为抗原免疫小鼠后,能够为接种动物提供广泛的交叉保护效果,产生的血清抗体能够有效杀灭多种主流血清型菌株。
此外,合成多糖抗原的GT通常是整合膜蛋白,在膜界面上进行催化反应(如革兰氏阴性菌的内膜,或真核生物内质网/高尔基体),需要分子伴侣来辅助其折叠和定位,从而确保结构和功能正确。特别是,当哺乳动物来源的GT在细菌中异源表达时,由于缺乏所需的翻译后修饰及伴侣蛋白辅助,GT通常难以实现其预设功能。为了克服这一难题,DeLisa团队87开发了一种名为“膜蛋白高可溶性表达”的蛋白质改造方法:通过在N端融合无信号肽的麦芽糖结合蛋白阻止GT插入内膜,并在C端融合两亲性ApoAI*结构域屏蔽GT的疏水结构域,促使这些膜蛋白转化为能够在细胞质中高水平表达的水溶性酶,并保留了其生物学活性。研究者利用该方法生产了98个难以表达的人源GT,并在大肠杆菌无细胞体系(cell-free protein synthesis,CFPS)中利用这些可溶性酶的人工组合,制备了带有正确糖型的治疗性单克隆抗体药物——曲妥珠单抗87。这种策略也同样有望用于病原细菌多糖抗原合成相关GT的改造。
定向改造大肠杆菌作为多糖结合疫苗的通用工程菌,异源表达不同病原细菌的表面多糖,是PGCT技术中最为常用的研究策略51。PGCT在疫苗领域应用的典型方法,就是将一个完整的多糖生物合成基因簇从病原菌中转移到大肠杆菌异源表达。但是这种方法同样存在很多局限性:外源基因簇在大肠杆菌中表达可能会影响相关的代谢途径导致无法正确合成多糖;即便外源基因簇也可以在宿主中转录和翻译,但外源多糖合成基因簇引入大肠杆菌后可能会与内源糖合成修饰途径相互作用,导致非目标多糖的产生88;外源糖合成途径也可能与宿主菌株的内源性糖代谢途径冲突或竞争底物,降低目标糖蛋白的产量89
目前,在改造大肠杆菌工程菌株、提高PGCT生产效率和遗传稳定性等方面,已经取得了一些进展。2005年,Feldman等20构建了大肠杆菌W3110缺失O-抗原连接酶基因waaL的菌株CLM24,阻断了多糖抗原与细菌脂质A的连接,为多糖抗原与载体蛋白的连接提供了更丰富的底物来源,这也是PGCT中最为基础的工程菌株。同年Linton等90敲除了肠杆菌共同抗原(enterobacterial common antigen, ECA)合成途径中的第一个起始糖基转移酶WecA编码基因,构建了菌株CLM37。WecA的缺失阻止了ECA和大肠杆菌内源性O-抗原从N-乙酰葡萄糖(GlcNAc)残基开始的组装,能够显著提高那些还原端为非GlcNAc病原细菌多糖的异源表达。
在内源性非目标多糖合成相关基因的删减方面,Alaimo等利用大肠杆菌O-抗原和CPS基因簇缺失菌株SO87491,进一步构建了ECA基因簇缺失菌株92。2008年,Perez等93在SO874菌株的基础上缺失了waaL基因,随后Musumeci等94又继续缺失了wecA基因。本团队也利用短回文重复序列(clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats, CRISPR)基因编辑系统,在大肠杆菌W3110中重复了此类研究,并导入PGCT系统评估多糖结合疫苗产量变化。结果显示,缺失O-抗原合成基因簇及侧链修饰基因簇能够提高产量,但是联合缺失ECA基因簇与CPS基因簇反而会降低肺炎克雷伯氏菌多糖结合疫苗的产量42。因此,工程菌株的改造可能需要根据不同病原细菌多糖结构及合成途径进行分析和个性化优化。
在宿主工程菌遗传稳定性改进方面,可以将PGCT的组成部分整合到染色体上,不仅能够确保关键元件不丢失,还会有助于减少外源元件多拷贝表达对宿主造成的代谢负担。2018年,Strutton等95将OST基因pglB整合到CLM24基因组上并使用了强组成型启动子BBa_J23119控制表达。2019年,Yates等通过正交试验,将空肠弯曲杆菌糖编码基因簇及OST基因pglB整合到大肠杆菌MG1655基因组上,替代了内源性O-抗原基因簇或ECA基因簇,使用原启动子或强启动子BBa_J23110控制表达96,成功获得了大肠杆菌双重整合的底盘菌株,其表达的糖蛋白与常规质粒系统相比具有相当或更高的表达量。这种双重整合底盘细胞体系,只需要一个编码载体蛋白的质粒即可,与改造前的三质粒系统相比,大大减少了重组质粒丢失的可能性,从而提高了系统的遗传稳定性96。受此研究启发,我们团队将SC载体蛋白和OST基因pglL整合到前述缺失WaaL、内源性O-抗原合成和修饰基因簇的大肠杆菌工程菌中,构建了双元件整合工程菌WdlO-tPS01菌株,仅需转入目标病原细菌的多糖合成基因簇,即可用于纳米多糖结合疫苗的生产42
为了进一步拓展糖合成生物学的工具包,近年来CFPS系统作为一个新的糖工程操作平台,已被用于结合PGCT技术合成多糖结合疫苗。如前述及,该体系使用纯化后的酶,体外催化特定的糖基化反应,这些GT通常是无细胞裂解液中原位生产所得97-98。大肠杆菌的N-连接蛋白糖基化修饰系统在CFPS中应用最广,DeLisa团队证明99,通过向大肠杆菌无细胞裂解体系S30或重构组分重组元件合成蛋白质系统中100,添加纯化的OST和目标多糖,可以有效地使空肠弯曲杆菌AcrA蛋白和单链抗体可变区片段发生糖基化修饰。随后,DeLisa和Jewett团队101开发了更为先进的模块化“一锅法”技术用于无细胞糖蛋白的合成,可用于对多种FDA批准的载体蛋白进行糖基化修饰(如CRM197和HiD等),并且该技术生产的多糖蛋白偶联物同样可以诱导针对细菌多糖的特异性抗体,对免疫后小鼠有完全的免疫保护。除了蛋白N-糖基化系统,O-糖基化系统也可以在无细胞体系的平台中进行。DeLisa团队102利用O-糖基化系统体外合成了含有人类肿瘤Tn抗原和T抗原等,进一步为无细胞糖蛋白表达平台扩展了工具包。
合成生物学已经为多糖结合疫苗领域注入了新的活力,也必将进一步促进新型疫苗生物合成制造的蓬勃发展。当然,生物法合成多糖结合疫苗目前依然存在一些不足,如目标糖蛋白产物的产量较低,需要进一步对疫苗合成途径中的关键元件进行优化和改良。
就PGCT技术体系而言,未来的技术突破可能出现在以下几个方面:
(1)新型OST的设计和改造
虽然多次跨膜的OST结构解析具有一定的困难,但是可以相信,随着冷冻电镜技术的发展,会有更多的OST结构可以被明确解析,这将大大促进对OST不同结构域功能的理解,有望进一步实现不同结构域的人工设计重构,使人工酶具有更为宽松广泛的多糖结构识别能力和更精密的糖基化基序,从而为应用正交OST酶组制造多联多价结合疫苗奠定基础。
(2)理性设计载体蛋白
利用病原细菌分泌的毒素蛋白或表面膜蛋白融合糖基化识别基序,作为多糖结合疫苗的载体蛋白,合成具有两种抗原的新型多糖结合疫苗,能够为接种者提供更为广泛有效的保护效果。如果能进一步融合病原细菌来源的MHCⅠ类分子结合肽,将有望针对胞内菌感染制备出能够激发细胞免疫的高效疫苗。此外,人工设计蛋白纳米颗粒,作为创新型载体有望进一步增强结合疫苗的免疫效果。随着对蛋白质结构和功能的进一步解析和深入研究,非天然人工设计的蛋白纳米颗粒应运而生(I53-50),虽然目前人工设计的蛋白纳米颗粒主要应用于蛋白抗原的装载,但在可预见的未来,它们也可以用于多糖结合疫苗的生物合成,例如:通过基因工程的方式融合表达抗原,将异源糖抗原装载到纳米颗粒载体上。同样,载体上也可以同时展示多种接头,混合连接多种抗原,制备“马赛克”疫苗,产生针对多种抗原表位的免疫反应,从而提供更广泛的免疫保护。
(3)多糖合成线路异构
建立大肠杆菌细菌GT数据库,根据目标病原多糖抗原的结构,确定具有相应功能的催化元件,并将其依次连接构成人工基因簇,该基因簇的表达将有望合成预期的多糖抗原,如衣原体、支原体、寄生虫及人类肿瘤特异性糖链抗原等。
(4)工程菌株定向进化
多糖结合疫苗组成复杂、生物合成方案涉及的步骤繁多,决定最终产量的因素难以确定。近年来,CRISPR基因编辑技术、DNA芯片合成技术、自动化筛选工作站的快速发展,为进行工程菌株全基因组高通量突变提供了可行性,有望通过随机突变筛选与基因组测序结合的方法,建立每个基因与最终产量之间的定量关系,进而可以利用机器学习AI辅助等先进计算方法,明确影响工程菌株效能的核心代谢通路,为菌株的定向进化提供新思路。
  • 国家重点研发计划(2021YFC2102100)
  • 国家自然科学基金(32271507)
  • 国家自然科学基金(U20A20361)
  • 国家自然科学基金(81930122)
  • 国家自然科学基金(823723779)
  • 北京市科技新星计划(2022045)
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2024年第5卷第2期
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doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-054
  • 接收时间:2023-08-09
  • 首发时间:2025-07-07
  • 出版时间:2024-04-30
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  • 收稿日期:2023-08-09
  • 修回日期:2023-11-02
基金
国家重点研发计划(2021YFC2102100)
国家自然科学基金(32271507)
国家自然科学基金(U20A20361)
国家自然科学基金(81930122)
国家自然科学基金(823723779)
北京市科技新星计划(2022045)
作者信息
    军事科学院军事医学研究院,病原微生物生物安全全国重点实验室,北京 100071

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王恒樑(1971—),男,博士,研究员,博士生导师。军事科学院军事医学研究院生物工程研究所副所长,病原微生物生物安全国家重点实验室副主任。主要从事病原细菌致病机理及基因工程疫苗研究。E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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