Article(id=1148993606691648037, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148993605936669114, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.12211/2096-8280.2023-010, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1675180800000, receivedDateStr=2023-02-01, revisedDate=1703606400000, revisedDateStr=2023-12-27, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1751871023103, onlineDateStr=2025-07-07, pubDate=1709136000000, pubDateStr=2024-02-29, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1751871023103, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-07, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1751871023103, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1751871023103, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1148993605936669114, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, year='2024', volume='5', issue='1', pageStart='1', pageEnd='216', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1751871022923, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1752057333139, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1149775047658791591, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148993605936669114, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1149775047658791592, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, issueId=1148993605936669114, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=154, endPage=173, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1149999701823729840, articleId=1148993606691648037, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, language=EN, title=Design and synthesis of engineered extracellular vesicles and their biomedical applications, columnId=1149894683619635652, journalTitle=Synthetic Biology Journal, columnName=Invited Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

In recent years, extracellular vesicles have received increasing attention due to their close association with the occurrence and development of diseases. As mechanism underlying the regulation of extracellular vesicles on the development of diseases and other kinds of biological functions has been explored persistently, their utilization as drug carriers has also been tested by scientists for targeted therapy. Extracellular vesicles as drug carriers have several intrinsic advantages compared to artificial carriers, such as higher biocompatibility, lower immunogenicity, better capacity for biofilm fusion, and particular natural homing effect on intracellular communications. However, the biomedical applications of extracellular vesicles also face challenges with their complicated surface modification, poor drug loading capacity and low product yield. Engineered extracellular vesicles refer to the artificial modification of natural extracellular vesicles to particularly fit with target recipient cells or tissues, which can achieve precise delivery of contained functional molecules and support production at a large scale, thus showing a broad prospect for their biomedical applications. Synthetic biology technology can realize the de novo design and reengineering of chassis cells to support the standardized and modular synthesis of extracellular vesicles. This article first reviews the methods and applications of surface modification and functional molecule encapsulation of extracellular vesicles, and then summarizes strategies for their preparation and production, such as extraction, and purification. In the second section, we envision the role of synthetic biology in promoting the customized design and synthesis of engineered extracellular vesicles to further facilitate fine control on attributes, improve efficiency, and expand applications to make them widely used in human health as soon as possible.

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近年来,细胞外囊泡因其与疾病发生发展密切相关而受到越来越广泛的关注。随着细胞外囊泡参与生命功能调控的机制被不断解析,利用细胞外囊泡作为药物载体,用于靶向治疗的工作也相继开展。细胞外囊泡作为药物载体,与人工载体相比,具有高生物相容性、低免疫原性和良好的生物膜融合能力,同时有着参与细胞通信的归巢效应等天然优势。然而,细胞外囊泡的生物医学应用也存在表面修饰复杂、包载能力差、产量较低等问题,导致使用范围严重受限。工程化细胞外囊泡是指对天然细胞外囊泡进行人工改造,使其能够特异性靶向受体细胞或组织,实现所包载功能分子的精准递送,并支撑可放大生产的模式,从而展现出广阔的生物医学应用前景。合成生物学技术的引入,可实现底盘细胞的从头设计再造,支撑细胞外囊泡的标准化、模块化合成。本文首先概括了工程化细胞外囊泡的表面修饰、工程化细胞外囊泡的功能分子包载的方法和应用;其次总结了工程化细胞外囊泡的生产制备,如提升细胞外囊泡产量的工程化策略、细胞外囊泡的放大生产与提取纯化等;最后展望了合成生物学通过改造底盘细胞基因组、人工设计囊泡表面蛋白、调控分子包载的细胞过程等定制化合成细胞外囊泡的前景。合成生物学技术的发展与使用可推动工程化细胞外囊泡的定制化设计与合成,将进一步精细控制其属性、提升其效能、拓展其应用,争取将其早日广泛应用于人类健康事业。

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王汉杰(1984—),男,博士,教授,天津大学生命科学学院副院长。研究方向为纳米生物学、合成生物学和生物医学工程等多学科交叉领域,从事肠道细菌的合成生物学设计再造及生命健康应用研究。 E-mail:
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刘夺(1987—),男,博士,副研究员。研究方向为纳米医药合成生物学,从事细菌、酵母设计再造用于医药合成与在体递送等生命健康应用研究。 E-mail:

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刘夺(1987—),男,博士,副研究员。研究方向为纳米医药合成生物学,从事细菌、酵母设计再造用于医药合成与在体递送等生命健康应用研究。 E-mail:

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刘夺(1987—),男,博士,副研究员。研究方向为纳米医药合成生物学,从事细菌、酵母设计再造用于医药合成与在体递送等生命健康应用研究。 E-mail:

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Applications of the surface modifications of extracellular vesicles

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
修饰分子 来源细胞 受体细胞 目标功能 参考文献
RVG肽 HEK293T 脑神经细胞 治疗阿尔兹海默病 [2]
Anti-CD3,Anti-EGFR Expi293F T细胞 杀伤乳腺癌细胞 [3]
LLO 细菌 DC细胞 实现抗原呈递 [4]
MERS-CoV的RBD 细菌 免疫细胞 人工抗原 [6]
SPIKE的RBD 细菌 免疫细胞 人工疫苗 [7]
适配体AS1411 小鼠DC细胞 肿瘤细胞 杀伤癌细胞 [8]
c(RGDyK)肽 MSC 脑血管内皮细胞 治疗缺血脑损伤 [9]
动物源配体 杂合膜融合 血管细胞 促血管生成 [10]
动物源配体 杂合膜融合 巨噬细胞 杀伤癌细胞 [11]
c(RGDyK)肽 MSC 脑血管内皮细胞 治疗缺血脑损伤 [9]
α(FRα) 动物细胞 脑实质 脑部递送 [12]
RVG肽 小鼠DC细胞 神经元细胞 治疗神经损伤 [13]
IMTP肽 骨髓MSC 心肌组织 修复心肌 [14]
iRGD肽 动物细胞 肿瘤细胞 杀伤癌细胞 [15]
GE11肽 HEK293T 乳腺癌细胞 杀伤癌细胞 [16]
ICAM1 DC细胞 DC、T细胞 活化免疫功能 [17]
MFGE8 巨噬细胞 巨噬细胞 活化免疫功能 [18]
CIC2 纤维肉瘤细胞 抗原呈递细胞 活化免疫功能 [19]
CAR CAR-T 肿瘤细胞 杀伤癌细胞 [20]
PD-1 T细胞 肿瘤细胞 阻断免疫逃逸 [21]
异源抗原 细菌 免疫细胞 活化免疫功能 [22]
), ArticleFig(id=1170675194956914829, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146031712061968385, articleId=1148993606691648037, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

细胞外囊泡表面修饰的应用

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
修饰分子 来源细胞 受体细胞 目标功能 参考文献
RVG肽 HEK293T 脑神经细胞 治疗阿尔兹海默病 [2]
Anti-CD3,Anti-EGFR Expi293F T细胞 杀伤乳腺癌细胞 [3]
LLO 细菌 DC细胞 实现抗原呈递 [4]
MERS-CoV的RBD 细菌 免疫细胞 人工抗原 [6]
SPIKE的RBD 细菌 免疫细胞 人工疫苗 [7]
适配体AS1411 小鼠DC细胞 肿瘤细胞 杀伤癌细胞 [8]
c(RGDyK)肽 MSC 脑血管内皮细胞 治疗缺血脑损伤 [9]
动物源配体 杂合膜融合 血管细胞 促血管生成 [10]
动物源配体 杂合膜融合 巨噬细胞 杀伤癌细胞 [11]
c(RGDyK)肽 MSC 脑血管内皮细胞 治疗缺血脑损伤 [9]
α(FRα) 动物细胞 脑实质 脑部递送 [12]
RVG肽 小鼠DC细胞 神经元细胞 治疗神经损伤 [13]
IMTP肽 骨髓MSC 心肌组织 修复心肌 [14]
iRGD肽 动物细胞 肿瘤细胞 杀伤癌细胞 [15]
GE11肽 HEK293T 乳腺癌细胞 杀伤癌细胞 [16]
ICAM1 DC细胞 DC、T细胞 活化免疫功能 [17]
MFGE8 巨噬细胞 巨噬细胞 活化免疫功能 [18]
CIC2 纤维肉瘤细胞 抗原呈递细胞 活化免疫功能 [19]
CAR CAR-T 肿瘤细胞 杀伤癌细胞 [20]
PD-1 T细胞 肿瘤细胞 阻断免疫逃逸 [21]
异源抗原 细菌 免疫细胞 活化免疫功能 [22]
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工程化细胞外囊泡的设计合成与生物医学应用
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刘夺 1, 2 , 刘培源 1 , 李连月 1 , 王雅欣 1 , 崔钰惠 1 , 薛慧敏 1 , 王汉杰 1
合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024,5(1): 154-173
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合成生物学 | 特约评述 2024, 5(1): 154-173
工程化细胞外囊泡的设计合成与生物医学应用
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刘夺1, 2 , 刘培源1, 李连月1, 王雅欣1, 崔钰惠1, 薛慧敏1, 王汉杰1
作者信息
  • 1 天津大学生命科学学院,天津市微纳生物材料与检疗技术工程中心,天津市生物大分子结构功能与应用重点实验室,天津 300072
  • 2 天津大学化工学院,合成生物学前沿科学中心,天津 300072
  • 刘夺(1987—),男,博士,副研究员。研究方向为纳米医药合成生物学,从事细菌、酵母设计再造用于医药合成与在体递送等生命健康应用研究。 E-mail:

通讯作者:

王汉杰(1984—),男,博士,教授,天津大学生命科学学院副院长。研究方向为纳米生物学、合成生物学和生物医学工程等多学科交叉领域,从事肠道细菌的合成生物学设计再造及生命健康应用研究。 E-mail:
Design and synthesis of engineered extracellular vesicles and their biomedical applications
Duo LIU1, 2 , Peiyuan LIU1, Lianyue LI1, Yaxin WANG1, Yuhui CUI1, Huimin XUE1, Hanjie WANG1
Affiliations
  • 1 School of Life Sciences,Tianjin University,Tianjin Engineering Center of Micro-Nano Biomaterials and Detection-Treatment Technology,Tianjin Key Laboratory of Function and Application of Biological Macromolecules,Tianjin 300072,China
  • 2 Frontiers Science Center for Synthetic Biology,School of Chemical Engineering and Technology,Tianjin University,Tianjin 300072,China
出版时间: 2024-02-29 doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-010
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近年来,细胞外囊泡因其与疾病发生发展密切相关而受到越来越广泛的关注。随着细胞外囊泡参与生命功能调控的机制被不断解析,利用细胞外囊泡作为药物载体,用于靶向治疗的工作也相继开展。细胞外囊泡作为药物载体,与人工载体相比,具有高生物相容性、低免疫原性和良好的生物膜融合能力,同时有着参与细胞通信的归巢效应等天然优势。然而,细胞外囊泡的生物医学应用也存在表面修饰复杂、包载能力差、产量较低等问题,导致使用范围严重受限。工程化细胞外囊泡是指对天然细胞外囊泡进行人工改造,使其能够特异性靶向受体细胞或组织,实现所包载功能分子的精准递送,并支撑可放大生产的模式,从而展现出广阔的生物医学应用前景。合成生物学技术的引入,可实现底盘细胞的从头设计再造,支撑细胞外囊泡的标准化、模块化合成。本文首先概括了工程化细胞外囊泡的表面修饰、工程化细胞外囊泡的功能分子包载的方法和应用;其次总结了工程化细胞外囊泡的生产制备,如提升细胞外囊泡产量的工程化策略、细胞外囊泡的放大生产与提取纯化等;最后展望了合成生物学通过改造底盘细胞基因组、人工设计囊泡表面蛋白、调控分子包载的细胞过程等定制化合成细胞外囊泡的前景。合成生物学技术的发展与使用可推动工程化细胞外囊泡的定制化设计与合成,将进一步精细控制其属性、提升其效能、拓展其应用,争取将其早日广泛应用于人类健康事业。

细胞外囊泡  /  生物医学  /  工程化  /  靶向治疗  /  底盘细胞  /  合成生物学

In recent years, extracellular vesicles have received increasing attention due to their close association with the occurrence and development of diseases. As mechanism underlying the regulation of extracellular vesicles on the development of diseases and other kinds of biological functions has been explored persistently, their utilization as drug carriers has also been tested by scientists for targeted therapy. Extracellular vesicles as drug carriers have several intrinsic advantages compared to artificial carriers, such as higher biocompatibility, lower immunogenicity, better capacity for biofilm fusion, and particular natural homing effect on intracellular communications. However, the biomedical applications of extracellular vesicles also face challenges with their complicated surface modification, poor drug loading capacity and low product yield. Engineered extracellular vesicles refer to the artificial modification of natural extracellular vesicles to particularly fit with target recipient cells or tissues, which can achieve precise delivery of contained functional molecules and support production at a large scale, thus showing a broad prospect for their biomedical applications. Synthetic biology technology can realize the de novo design and reengineering of chassis cells to support the standardized and modular synthesis of extracellular vesicles. This article first reviews the methods and applications of surface modification and functional molecule encapsulation of extracellular vesicles, and then summarizes strategies for their preparation and production, such as extraction, and purification. In the second section, we envision the role of synthetic biology in promoting the customized design and synthesis of engineered extracellular vesicles to further facilitate fine control on attributes, improve efficiency, and expand applications to make them widely used in human health as soon as possible.

engineered extracellular vesicles  /  biomedicine  /  target therapy  /  chassis  /  synthetic biology
刘夺, 刘培源, 李连月, 王雅欣, 崔钰惠, 薛慧敏, 王汉杰. 工程化细胞外囊泡的设计合成与生物医学应用. 合成生物学, 2024 , 5 (1) : 154 -173 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-010
Duo LIU, Peiyuan LIU, Lianyue LI, Yaxin WANG, Yuhui CUI, Huimin XUE, Hanjie WANG. Design and synthesis of engineered extracellular vesicles and their biomedical applications[J]. Synthetic Biology Journal, 2024 , 5 (1) : 154 -173 . DOI: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-010
细胞外囊泡是一类由细胞产生、具有脂质膜结构的纳米生物颗粒,在物质的转运和信息的传递等多种生理过程中发挥重要的作用。几乎所有的天然细胞包括高等生物细胞(动物、植物)、低等微生物细胞(细菌、真菌)都可以产生细胞外囊泡,不同来源细胞外囊泡表面的标志物及其包载成分具有明显差别1-3。哺乳动物细胞外囊泡是研究最为广泛的一类,因囊泡生成的胞内机制不同,可分为外泌体(exosome,粒径50~150 nm)、微囊泡(microvesicle,粒径100~500 nm)和凋亡小体(>1 μm)等14。其中,外泌体主要通过“内体-多囊泡体”途径生成,并经多囊泡体与细胞质膜融合后向胞外释放;微囊泡主要通过细胞质膜外突向胞外分泌;而凋亡小体则是细胞凋亡过程中脱离出的囊泡状结构14。细菌的细胞外囊泡主要以微囊泡(或外膜囊泡,OMV)为主,而真菌和植物的细胞外囊泡则以外泌体为主2-3。细胞外囊泡的生物医学应用主要是作为药物的靶向递送载体,起始于2005年,Alain Delcayre团队5提出细胞外囊泡表面修饰技术,阐述了其作为新的诊断与治疗方法的应用前景。经过十多年发展,细胞外囊泡已用于癌症治疗、组织修复、代谢病治疗、人工疫苗等多种治疗用途6。细胞外囊泡作为药物递送载体,与人工脂质载体相比,具有两个主要优势:一是细胞外囊泡有着天然的生物相容性,并且会携带来源细胞的特异性膜蛋白,具有天然的归巢效应(倾向于在体迁移至囊泡来源细胞组织的位置);二是细胞外囊泡包载的蛋白和核酸能够干预靶细胞的生理过程,具有成为精准治疗药物的潜力。
然而,天然细胞外囊泡在使用中存在着功能有限、产量较低、生物活性多变等问题,制约其作为一种稳定的治疗佐剂的实际使用。基于细胞外囊泡对于重大疾病的发生发展和防治研究都有巨大促进作用,亟需建立细胞外囊泡的工程化合成流程,以满足利用细胞外囊泡构建新型药物制剂,保障人类生命健康的巨大实际使用需求。工程化细胞外囊泡的设计合成主要包括细胞外囊泡的功能拓展与生产制备两个关键环节。细胞外囊泡的功能拓展主要通过表面修饰和功能分子包载两种策略实现:表面修饰是指在细胞外囊泡表面设计添加功能配体,使其具有靶向受体细胞、激活免疫等功能;功能分子包载是指向外囊泡中包载指定的小分子药物、核酸、蛋白质,将细胞外囊泡打造为递送治疗物质的功能载体。细胞外囊泡的生产制备是指提高细胞外囊泡的产量,同时降低细胞外囊泡的生产成本,提升其作为生物医药的普惠性。通过优化细胞外囊泡的分离纯化方法,连续生产性质可靠、效果稳定、纯度较高的细胞外囊泡,早日实现其在临床应用的潜在巨大价值。本文将针对工程化细胞外囊泡的表面修饰、功能分子包载和生产制备等关键技术进行综述,总结相关技术支撑细胞外囊泡在生物医学上的应用,并对合成生物学在细胞外囊泡的定制化设计合成中的潜在应用进行探讨。
细胞外囊泡表面的基因工程修饰方法是指通过底盘细胞进行基因改造,使得细胞所分泌的外囊泡表面表达修饰特定的功能分子(图1表1)。
最常用的修饰方式就是将目标蛋白与内源膜蛋白以融合蛋白的形式表达,使得目标蛋白修饰在囊泡膜外侧。常用的膜蛋白包括乳杆菌黏附素、溶酶体相关膜蛋白2B(LAMP-2B)和血小板衍生生长因子受体(PDGFR)等。Alain Delcayre团队5将目标蛋白与乳凝集素C1C2结构域融合,使其表达于外泌体膜表面。Martin Fussenegger团队23构建了神经元特异性狂犬病毒糖蛋白(RVG)中的多肽片段与LAMP-2B融合表达的质粒,并转染HEK293T细胞,其所分泌的外泌体“EXOtic”可被有效靶向递送到脑部神经细胞。张勇团队24通过转染Expi293F细胞,将Anti-CD3、Anti-EGFR两种抗体与PDGFR分别融合形成融合蛋白表达于外泌体膜上,使得外泌体同时具备乳腺癌细胞和T细胞的亲和力,从而将T细胞富集到乳腺癌细胞附近以提升对癌细胞的靶向杀伤力。这种靶向识别细胞表面特征受体(如EGFR、PDGFR等)的策略在多项工作中得以使用725。刘刚团队8开发了新型“ASPIRE”纳米囊泡疫苗平台,将工程化树突细胞(DC细胞)膜改造成免疫活化信号转导载体,既可直接激活初始T细胞,又可活化耗竭性T细胞,为个性化肿瘤疫苗研发提供了创新方法。
在工程化细菌外囊泡表面,也可利用一些膜蛋白与外源功能蛋白融合表达,修饰在囊泡膜表面。聂广军团队26利用膜蛋白ClyA分别与源自古细菌的RNA结合蛋白L7Ae以及溶酶体逃逸蛋白李斯特菌溶血素O(LLO)共表达为融合蛋白,这使得细菌外囊泡可在其表面结合mRNA并将其递送到DC细胞中,并通过LLO介导的内体逃逸实现交叉抗原呈递。Wouter Jong团队27构建了一种基于血红蛋白酶(Hbp)的细菌膜表面修饰系统,可将目标蛋白或多肽修饰在跨膜蛋白的不同位置。Mobarak Mraheil团队28构建了一种特殊的细菌外囊泡疫苗,可呈递甲型流行性流感病毒(H1N1)H1型血凝素(HA)和中东呼吸道综合征冠状病毒(MERS-CoV)受体结合结构域(RBD)的融合蛋白HA-RBD,作为一种嵌合抗原。一些标准化的“纳米捕获剂(catcher)”元件可被装配在细菌外囊泡表面,用于将对应的“纳米标签(tag)”偶联的功能蛋白装配到囊泡表面。聂广军团队29-30利用细菌膜蛋白ClyA将纳米捕获剂SnoopCatcher修饰到囊泡表面,成功捕获对应标签融合的纯化蛋白,实现模块化囊泡表面修饰。此外,SpyCatcher也是常用的用于结合目标蛋白的纳米捕获剂931
基因工程方法的优点在于:仅需培养细胞,便可提取获得修饰特定配体的胞外囊泡,而无需对囊泡进行体外修饰。缺点也明显:合适的囊泡膜上蛋白比较有限,一些配体结构在与膜蛋白融合表达时,不能折叠成有活性的结构。
细胞外囊泡的提取后修饰方法主要包括脂质分子插入修饰、共价交联修饰、点击化学修饰等(图1表1)。脂溶性分子可锚定插入到细胞外囊泡的膜中,如胆固醇或合成磷脂(如DSPE、DMPE、DOPE)作为最常见的脂溶性交联剂,经由连接聚乙二醇(PEG),可将PEG偶联的靶向分子修饰在外囊泡膜表面。何侠团队32将胆固醇- PEG与核酸适配体AS1411进行共价结合,通过共孵育将其嵌入到了小鼠DC细胞外囊泡膜中。谭蔚泓团队33利用适配体对指定细胞受体的特异性结合,指引DNA的纳米组装,获得了表面修饰DNA纳米结构的功能化外囊泡。
利用共价交联修饰细胞外囊泡表面主要依赖于氨基-羧基脱水缩合反应或马来酰亚胺-巯基共价结合反应,将功能分子修饰到囊泡表面的氨基酸残基上。例如,基于氨基和羧基的缩合反应,在细胞外囊泡表面经由生物素“搭桥”后可结合链霉亲和素,这样链霉亲和素4个结合位点中空闲的3个就可用于结合其他以生物素标记的功能分子。此外,链霉亲和素也可通过脂质修饰方法而锚定到细胞外囊泡膜上,例如Travis Antes团队34构建了一个由DMPE、PEG和链霉亲和素SAV组成的细胞外囊泡膜锚定平台,可实现生物素化分子及荧光分子与之偶联。另一种以氨基-羧基反应修饰在囊泡表面的常用分子是叶酸,可靶向识别结合高表达叶酸受体的肿瘤细胞。共价交联反应的共性缺点是反应选择性和抗干扰性差,修饰效率不高。魏炜团队35构建利用马来酰亚胺-巯基反应将VEGF抗体修饰在了T细胞外泌体表面,减少了脉络膜新生血管的生成。
相比传统交联反应,基于叠氮-炔基(炔基主要来自于二苯基环辛炔,DBCO)Husigen环加成的点击化学反应快速高效、共轭位点选择性和专一性高,反应抗干扰强。叠氮和炔基在一价铜催化下选择性地生成三唑环,可对细胞外囊泡膜直接进行修饰。利用细胞代谢含叠氮底物,可将叠氮基团修饰到外囊泡表面,从而可用于结合炔基标记的功能分子。Park Jae Hyung团队1036利用四乙酰基-N-叠氮乙酰甘露糖胺(Ac4ManNAz)处理细胞后,可将叠氮基团经由细胞代谢修饰到外囊泡表面,通过与DBCO标记的不同配体结合,可靶向炎症细胞、肿瘤细胞或巨噬细胞。此外,叠氮修饰的胆碱通过脂质合成途径可生成叠氮化的磷酸酰胆碱,成为细胞外囊泡膜的重要脂质组分,将叠氮基团修饰在表面11。非天然氨基酸也可用于引入叠氮基团,Qin Gangjian团队37在间充质干细胞中导入甲胺酰tRNA合成酶的L274G突变体,从而将6-叠氮-L-去甲亮氨酸引进膜蛋白合成过程,将叠氮基团修饰在外囊泡表面。
利用体外点击化学,也可将叠氮或炔基基团修饰在提取好的细胞外囊泡表面,用于结合另一种分子偶联的功能分子1238-39。将c(RGDyK)肽通过点击化学结合在间充质干细胞(MSC)外囊泡表面,可令其高亲和性地靶向反应性脑血管内皮细胞表面的整合素αvβ3,用于治疗缺血脑损伤和中风的研究40。谢海燕团队13在体外提取的M1巨噬细胞外囊泡表面修饰了叠氮基团,进一步构建了pH敏感的连接器使之与DBCO修饰的功能蛋白相偶联。刘定斌团队41利用人乳腺癌MCF-7细胞分离的外囊泡,通过磷脂酶D反应将炔基取代天然磷脂酰胆碱中的胆碱基团,可将叠氮标记的Cy5荧光染料标记在囊泡表面,体外实时跟踪观测囊泡的细胞内化过程。
通过细胞膜融合、细胞膜外囊泡融合可制备仿生膜,实现对囊泡组分、活性以及表面修饰分子的改造(图1)。钱菊英团队14利用骨髓间充质干细胞外囊泡与血小板囊泡融合,进行小鼠灌胃,可增强心肌梗死小鼠模型中的靶向促血管生成活性。Santosh Aryal团队15利用巨噬细胞来源的外囊泡与人工L-α-磷脂酰胆碱/胆固醇脂质体融合,形成新的嵌合囊泡,该嵌合囊泡可将搭载的药物靶向释放到巨噬细胞、骨肉瘤细胞和乳腺癌细胞。细菌外囊泡对机体细胞靶向性往往明显弱于人源细胞外囊泡,董海峰和张学记合作团队16建立了一个“真核-原核囊泡(EPV)”平台,用于将细菌囊泡与肿瘤细胞膜或囊泡融合形成嵌合囊泡。与天然细菌外囊泡相比,这种嵌合组装的EPV整合了各种肿瘤相关抗原,使其具有更高(高达10倍)的肿瘤特异性积累。
利用细胞外囊泡对发病部位进行治疗时,往往需要特异性识别与结合指定目标细胞(图1表1)。在不同天然细胞表面富集存在的特征受体,可作为囊泡特异性识别结合的靶标。经脑室注射表面携带叶酸受体α(FRα)的细胞外囊泡,可促进囊泡穿过血脑屏障与脑实质发生特异性结合17。一些短肽配体同样也具备靶向特定受体细胞的功能。Matthew Wood团队18通过修饰小鼠DC细胞,使其外泌体表面修饰RVG肽从而靶向结合神经元细胞。Jennifer Lang团队19在心脏球衍生细胞中通过慢病毒转基因的方式,使细胞外囊泡表面携带心肌细胞靶向肽CMP,能够特异性地靶向递送到心脏部位。沈振亚团队42在骨髓间充质干细胞外囊泡表面修饰缺血心肌靶向肽IMTP,可显著提升该囊泡在心肌组织中的积累。iRGD多肽常被用来修饰细胞外囊泡,用于靶向结合表面含有整合素αvβ3复合物的肿瘤细胞20。Masahiko Kuroda团队21在HEK293T细胞外囊泡表面装载GE11肽,可令其靶向乳腺癌细胞。值得注意的是,尽管工程化细胞外囊泡被赋予了特异性靶向能力,但它们仍有可能在非靶向的组织或器官中积累,如肝脏和肾脏。因此,工程化改造细胞外囊泡需要和临床应用需求密切配合,以更好地理解囊泡靶向机制和提升靶向治疗效果。
天然免疫细胞之间存在着经由细胞外囊泡介导的免疫激活过程,可用于工程化细胞外囊泡设计(图1表1)。来自成熟DC细胞的外泌体表面的ICAM1,可被CD8+ DC细胞及活化T细胞表面的淋巴细胞功能相关抗原1(LFA1)识别,从而将外泌体捕获43。外泌体表面的磷脂酰丝氨酸可结合乳黏素(乳脂球表皮生长因子8,MFGE8)而将其携带在表面,进而通过乳黏素与巨噬细胞表面αvβ3或αvβ5整合素的特异性识别结合,而介导巨噬细胞对外泌体的吞噬44。Clotilde Théry团队和Herbert Lyerly团队2245利用体外培养细胞系分泌囊泡表面的乳黏素CIC2结构域,可选择性地靶向抗原呈递细胞,从而将所包载的抗原蛋白递送进去以激活免疫反应。胡适团队46发现CAR-T细胞来源的外泌体表面携带有CAR蛋白,可用于靶向识别肿瘤细胞,且外泌体中包载着细胞毒性分子,具有抗肿瘤作用。他们的研究表明,在细胞因子释放综合征(CRS)治疗模型中,这种外泌体比CAR-T细胞具有更好的安全性。
肿瘤细胞表面存在一些特异性受体如CD47、PD-L1,使其能够逃避机体免疫检查和攻击。在工程化细胞外囊泡表面表达修饰的SIRPα配体或PD-1配体,可分别结合肿瘤细胞表面的CD47受体和PD-L1受体,用于解除肿瘤 “逃避免疫检查”机制,重新激活免疫细胞识别肿瘤细胞功能。张旭东、梁欣、顾臻合作团队47构建了T细胞衍生的细胞外囊泡,在囊泡表面表达修饰了PD-1配体,可通过中断PD-1/PD-L1通路来增强肿瘤消除。反之,利用这种逃避免疫检查的机制,在工程化细胞外囊泡表面装载CD47受体,可与免疫细胞的SIRPα结合从而有效逃避免疫检查,延长囊泡在体循环周期48
微生物细胞(如细菌)外囊泡的工程化修饰可使其表面修饰异源抗原分子,作为疫苗使用(图1表1)。不同的革兰氏阴性细菌外囊泡具有不同的天然免疫原性,细菌外囊泡呈现出高度的异质性,具有不同的粒径大小和胞容物,这阻碍其工程化应用49。因此,需要对细菌外囊泡表面的功能分子(如抗原)进行修饰以控制其免疫原性,提升其靶向受体免疫细胞的效力。Guido Grandi团队50开发了一种“膜抗原通用模块(GMMA)”技术,可通过脂蛋白转运机制将异源抗原包载入细菌外囊泡中,从而实现细胞外囊泡表面抗原的模块化改造,当受体细胞吞噬这种囊泡后可更好地激活免疫反应。利用该技术构建的一株大肠杆菌突变体的外囊泡中直接消除了59个内源性蛋白,提高了所需异源性抗原的装载能力,从而提升了囊泡所引发的免疫应答51。Matthew DeLisa团队52建立的一项“即插即展示”技术被开发用以在细菌外囊泡表面表达修饰抗原,并且由于囊泡组分包含源自底盘菌不同多糖途径所合成的多糖基团,会进一步扩大个性化细菌外囊泡疫苗库。Joen Luirink、Jason Villano和Kenneth Witwer联合团队31将新冠棘突蛋白(SPIKE)的受体结合域(RBD)表达修饰在细菌外囊泡表面,可作为SARS-CoV-2候选疫苗。
对底盘细胞进行遗传改造,可在囊泡形成的过程中将指定胞内分子导入囊泡,实现功能分子的包载(图2)。前述的EXOtic工程化外泌体就是利用膜蛋白LAMP-2B融合的LA7e蛋白来结合含C/D box的mRNA而实现指定核酸的包载23。Quan Lu团队53开发了一种利用细胞微囊泡递送功能分子的体系ARMM。细胞表面的ARRDC1蛋白可驱动微囊泡的形成,并将物质运出细胞传递给邻近细胞,这种工程化微囊泡可选择性地包载mRNA。杨国栋团队54利用膜蛋白CD9偶联锌指蛋白,可对胞内特定适配体偶联的mRNA进行捕获,将其包入外囊泡中。利用该系统向脂肪细胞传递负载的Pgc1α mRNA可以有效地诱导白色脂肪细胞褐变,而在炎症性肠病(IBD)小鼠模型中递送白细胞介素-10(IL-10)mRNA则表现出强大的抗炎作用。光遗传工具可介导蛋白相互作用,从而引导将目标蛋白包载入细胞外囊泡。KAIST研究所提出了一种通过光可逆蛋白相互作用的策略“EXPLOR”,用于在胞内捕获蛋白并将其装载入HEK293T细胞外泌体55。在该策略中,囊泡膜蛋白CD9融合CIBN蛋白而将其锚定在膜上,与CIBN对应的光受体隐色素2(CRY2)则与目标蛋白融合,在光控作用下经由CIBN-CRY2的特异性结合将目标蛋白也捕获到囊泡膜内侧。利用EXPLOR策略,实现了外泌体递送超阻遏物IκB以减轻脓毒症相关的器官损伤和死亡率56
将功能分子包载到细胞外囊泡中的物理化学方法包括:辅助药物孵育、连续挤压、超声、瞬时转染、冻融、微流控、电穿孔等(图2)。装载效率取决于包载物(化合物药物、核酸小分子等)浓度、物理化学性质(如溶解度、表面活性、亲脂性和疏水性等),以及在不同包载手段的力学效应57-58。相关综述659已经介绍得非常详细,本文不再赘述。一项代表性成果是滕乐生、Betty Kim和L. James Lee合作团队60开发的一种细胞纳米孔(CNP)生物芯片,这是一种利用瞬时电刺激细胞的装置,可提高细胞对指定质粒的包载效率,进而显著提高外泌体中的mRNA转录本的包载量(近1000倍)。根据实际治疗的疾病和临床场景,以及所使用的用于产生外囊泡的不同底盘细胞,可选用一到多种方法来提高功能分子的包载效率,提升疗效。值得注意的是,这些主动包载方法的使用,有的会让细胞外囊泡维持原有生物活性,有的则会对囊泡进行一定程度的改性,要根据实际使用的需要来谨慎选择。
一些用于治疗肿瘤、炎症等的小分子化合物药物可通过体外包载的形式包入细胞外囊泡,可用于药物的精准靶向递送(图2)。紫杉醇是用于肿瘤治疗的常用亲脂性药物,邓志芳团队61构建的RGDYK肽修饰的胚胎干细胞外囊泡可穿过血脑屏障,将包载的紫杉醇递送到胶质瘤细胞,达到治疗效果。Elena Batrakova团队62在巨噬细胞来源的外泌体表面表达修饰CD47受体,以避免外泌体被吞噬细胞吞噬,并通过超声处理外泌体膜结构而增加了紫杉醇药物载量。这种优化改造的外泌体用于耐药细胞系的治疗,疗效可提高50倍以上。该团队还采用聚乙二醇-氨基乙基镧酰胺(PEG-AA)对装载紫杉醇的外泌体进行修饰,通过靶向肿瘤表面的sigma受体而提高了靶向治疗效果63。虽未进行额外修饰,利用牛奶衍生的外泌体包载药物紫杉醇,也能用于稳定释放药物,抑制肿瘤生长64
阿霉素是最常用的治疗肿瘤小分子药物之一,也是体外包载入细胞外囊泡的“明星药物”。房新建、Hélder Santos和张徐合作团队65报道了利用中性粒细胞外泌体向受体细胞递送阿霉素以激活caspase信号通路,从而诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡。中性粒细胞外泌体包载阿霉素也被用于靶向治疗胶质瘤66。刘笔锋团队67构建了一种包载阿霉素和偶合小RNA分子磁颗粒的工程化细胞外囊泡,可在远红外光控制下释放阿霉素和RNA分子以达到治疗和沉默基因的效果。Dinender Singla团队68-69发现胚胎干细胞外囊泡包裹阿霉素可有效抑制焦亡、炎症,抑制细胞质空泡化、肌原纤维丢失,改善心脏功能。杨建凯团队70利用内皮细胞来源的外泌体包载递送阿霉素,用于胶质母细胞瘤的靶向递送化疗。林建华团队71利用骨髓间充质干细胞外囊泡包载阿霉素,使其通过被骨肉瘤MG63体外细胞系摄取而达到抗肿瘤作用。聂广军团队72利用小鼠未成熟的树突状细胞(imDC)生产外泌体,将包封的阿霉素递送到肿瘤细胞中,可抑制肿瘤生长而无明显毒性。
利用微生物或植物源细胞外囊泡的天然免疫原性,并将药物包载到这些囊泡中,也可以实现较好的肿瘤或炎症治疗效果。张皇阁团队73利用葡萄柚囊泡衍生脂质制成的纳米载体可有效地递送不同物质,装载小分子JSI-124的外囊泡可以显著抑制STAT3的激活,有效抑制小鼠胶质瘤细胞 GL26 的移植瘤生长并延长小鼠的存活时间。此外,张明真团队74构建的叶酸修饰的生姜细胞囊泡包载阿霉素通过静脉注射可提高阿霉素体内摄取率,抑制结肠癌。
将mRNA或DNA分子包载到脂质囊泡中,可作为疫苗防治肿瘤或抗病毒感染,也可用于表达蛋白治疗剂(图2)。虽然目前mRNA疫苗的主流载体仍然是人工脂质体LNP(如Moderna和Pfzer-BioNTech公司开发的COVID-19核酸LNP疫苗),但以细胞外囊泡包载胞内转录获得的mRNA具有低生物毒性和高生物相容性、高靶向性等独特优势。程柯团队75利用肺源性细胞外囊泡,将编码新冠病毒刺突蛋白(Spike)的mRNA包载入其中,开发了一种室温下稳定的基于外泌体的可吸入冻干粉mRNA疫苗。在临床前研究中,基于外泌体的mRNA疫苗诱导了比脂质体疫苗更为强烈的小鼠IgG和分泌性IgA反应。细胞外囊泡亦可被用于皮肤病学领域,Andrew Lee、Betty Kim和兰峰合作团队76构建了包裹胶原蛋白mRNA的细胞外囊泡,用于注射到有皱纹的皮肤部位,以持续产生天然胶原蛋白。对于DNA包载,Codiak BioSciences公司构建了一种名为“ExoSTING”的工程化细胞外囊泡,包载STING信号通路的环形DNA拮抗剂,用于肿瘤靶向治疗,其并不会诱导全身炎症细胞因子,因此可增强治疗存活性77。该公司已开启这种工程疗法的人体试验,用于治疗实体肿瘤(NCT04592484)。
将非编码的其他功能RNA体外包载到提取好的工程化细胞外囊泡中,可针对性地调控受体细胞基因表达78。Minh Le团队79利用血红细胞外囊泡可包裹指定的反义寡核苷酸,或Cas9 mRNA及gRNA,实现对人细胞或小鼠模型的核酸递送,实现定向miRNA抑制或基因组编辑。Giovanni Camussi团队80利用血细胞来源的外囊泡包载抗肿瘤miRNA,可成功地促进HepG2肝癌细胞系的凋亡,沉默参与抗凋亡通路的靶基因。Raghu Kalluri团队48利用正常成纤维细胞样间充质细胞的外泌体携带针对致癌基因KRASG12D的siRNA或shRNA,抑制了多种胰腺癌小鼠模型中的癌症,并显著提高了小鼠总生存率。Jennifer Lang团队18利用小鼠自体来源DC细胞外囊泡(表面修饰RVG肽)来包裹GAPDH的siRNA,可实现小鼠脑部的神经元、小胶质细胞、少突胶质细胞中BACE1转录和蛋白的显著下调。Michael Filatov团队81考察了将siRNA包载进多种细胞来源外囊泡的诸多方法,并通过囊泡递送体外受体实现了RAD51和RAD52的靶向转录后抑制。Pierpaolo Peruzzi团队82向小鼠胶质瘤母细胞中转入miR-124、miR-128、miR-137所组成的miRNA簇,发现它们可以富集在细胞外囊泡中,利用这种修饰后的囊泡可令胶质母细胞瘤小鼠模型在接受联合化疗时生存率增加5倍。最近ExoPTEN公司推出一项用于改善创伤性脊髓损伤的装载siRNA的外泌体产品NurExone,该产品旨在通过骨髓间充质干细胞外泌体递送siRNA来抑制PTEN蛋白表达,从而促进轴突再生和神经修复。
在植物细胞外囊泡中包载核酸分子,也可实现将指定核酸靶向递送到哺乳动物受体细胞。张皇阁团队83将葡萄柚囊泡用叶酸修饰后包裹聚乙烯亚胺,可提高RNA的携带能力并消除聚乙烯亚胺的毒性。利用该囊泡包裹miR17后经鼻腔给药,可以透过血脑屏障,被GL-26肿瘤细胞选择性地摄取而延缓小鼠脑肿瘤的生长。此外,葡萄柚囊泡包裹miR-18a后可以诱导M1型巨噬细胞,并激活自然杀伤细胞和自然杀伤T细胞,抑制结肠癌的肝转移84
工程化细胞外囊泡包载蛋白分子,主要用于肿瘤、神经疾病、代谢病、基因突变疾病的治疗(图2)。对于靶向肿瘤的工程化囊泡而言,多数需要额外包载治疗性蛋白以增强效果,例如:促凋亡的分子FasL85或TRAIL86、具有免疫调节作用的细胞因子或化学趋向因子IL-18和IL-2等87-88。膜蛋白或与膜蛋白融合蛋白的包载包括两个方面:其一,目标蛋白定位于囊泡外表面,这在前面章节的囊泡表面修饰中已经详述;其二,目标蛋白定位于囊泡膜内侧,在哺乳动物细胞中主要是依赖CD63、CD9等四次跨膜蛋白来实现目标蛋白的锚定。Zhang Yong团队89建立了光控蛋白递送的细胞外囊泡,他们在融合表达的凋亡蛋白(apoptin)与囊泡膜蛋白CD9蛋白之间添加了可光响应切割肽,细胞外囊泡能够包载该融合蛋白,当光照时囊泡内的凋亡蛋白得以释放为游离状态。包载蛋白的细胞外囊泡可用于神经类疾病治疗,Elena Batrakova团队将过氧化氢酶包载入骨髓巨噬细胞衍生外囊泡中,用于治疗帕金森病小鼠模型90,将三肽基肽酶-1(TPP1)包载入外囊泡中治疗巴顿病小鼠模型91,发现包载了对应酶的囊泡可显著抑制神经退行性病变和神经炎症。肿瘤细胞来源的外泌体也可作为包载CRISPR-Cas9的载体向肿瘤细胞靶向递送蛋白与gRNA92
在细胞向外部释放的诸多类型囊泡结构中,外泌体的产生与释放具有相对清晰的细胞路径,因此受到了更多的研究关注。过表达或敲除外泌体合成路径的关键基因,有望干预合成效率,提升外泌体产量。可能会影响外泌体合成过程的靶点包括:参与蛋白折叠的分子伴侣HSP70、参与形成内吞体腔内囊泡的ALIX酶、ESCRT-0复合物的HRS和STAM、ESCRT-1复合物的TSG101、参与调控“内吞体运输必需分选复合物(ESCRT)”家族蛋白解离和循环过程的VPS4蛋白、参与多囊泡体内陷所需神经酰胺合成的nSMase2酶等。此外,与多囊泡体密切相关的Rab家族GTPase酶如Rab11、Rab27a、Rab27b、Rab31以及Rab35被证明可显著影响多种细胞系分泌外泌体(图3)。除了上述靶点适用于多种细胞系外,在个别细胞系中,也有其他一些靶点与外泌体合成相关,例如:CD63(MNT-1黑色素瘤细胞)、CD9和CD82(HEK293细胞)、CD81(人原发性淋巴母细胞)、TSPAN8(大鼠胰腺癌细胞)以及一些GTPase酶包括Rab2b、Rab5a、Rab9a(HeLa细胞)、Rab7(MCF-7细胞)等93。Marilyn Anderson和Suresh Mathivanan团队94发现,在酵母中细胞壁形成相关蛋白Fks1p和Chs3p的基因敲除被证明可通过增加细胞壁通透性,促进酵母细胞更多地释放细胞外囊泡。
目前有效利用多靶点过表达或敲除提升囊泡产量的工作较少,EXOtic工程化外泌体是这方面的代表性工作,研究人员采用质粒承载了三个蛋白的过表达:STEAP3(参与外泌体合成过程)、syndecan-4(促进内吞体发展出腔内囊泡)以及L-天冬氨酸氧化酶的部分片段。这些蛋白的引入可令细胞外泌体产量显著提升40倍23。未来随着合成生物学工具的引入使用,将有能力考察更多靶点的组合是否有利于细胞外囊泡的生产。
化学分子通过刺激细胞外囊泡生成的相关代谢,可以有效增加细胞合成囊泡的数量(图3)。Asim Abdel-Mageed团队95定量化高通量筛选了由1280种化合物构成的LOPAC库和3300种化合物构成的NPC库,用于寻找可调节侵袭性前列腺癌细胞外泌体合成或释放的目标化合物。经过筛选,他们确定了去甲肾上腺素、N-甲基多巴胺、美菲辛等几种化合物。基于此,Juliane Nguyen团队96利用N-甲基多巴胺和去甲肾上腺素刺激增强与ESCRT非依赖性途径相关的基因nSMase2的表达,导致外泌体产量增加3倍,经测试发现其生物活性并未受到影响。Shunbun Kita团队97通过脂联素结合人脂肪来源的间充质干细胞(hMSC)上的T钙黏蛋白来刺激外泌体的生物生成和分泌,外泌体产量增加了约3倍。Tang Yaoliang团队98利用四甲基吡嗪通过上调外泌体合成相关的Rab27a、Rab27b和SYTL4蛋白量而增加了外囊泡的释放。Pieter Vader团队使用氯喹和NH4Cl抑制溶酶体功能,可以促进外泌体的释放99,他们还利用巯基阻断剂DTT(二硫苏糖醇)和PFA(多聚甲醛)刺激细胞外囊泡分泌,与未处理细胞相比分泌囊泡增加了10倍以上100。此外,二十二碳六烯酸被证明有利于乳腺癌细胞外囊泡的分泌并增加具有抗肿瘤活性的miRNA包载量101。通过诱导细胞应激,可促进外囊泡的产生,Edwin Jackson团队102利用碘乙酸钠(IAA)和2,4-二硝基苯酚(DNP)的组合阻断氧化磷酸化和糖酵解来诱导细胞能量的减少,从而引发细胞应激,最终导致外泌体产量增加3~16倍。Antonio Diez-Juan和Pilar Sepúlveda团队103发现永生化的H9C2心肌细胞在葡萄糖不足时可增加约4倍的外囊泡分泌量,前列腺癌细胞PC3也可在饥饿条件下增加外囊泡分泌量。但需要注意,由此引发的外泌体生物活性变化有待考察。
多种环境因子(如pH、氧含量、温度的变化或过氧化刺激)形成的压力也可以引发细胞的应激,从而间接影响外囊泡的释放(图3)。肿瘤的酸性环境是诱导肿瘤细胞产生释放外泌体的重要因素之一。Stefano Fais团队104发现将pH值从7.4降低到6.5,可导致指定肿瘤细胞的外泌体释放量显著提升达69倍。Kim Manho团队105发现,与正常pH相比,HEK293T细胞在高pH(11.0)下分泌的外泌体减少80%,而在低pH(4.0)下分泌的外泌体则增加6倍。Lucia Csaderova团队106发现将癌细胞暴露在严重缺氧条件下24h会导致外泌体释放增加2~3倍,可能涉及缺氧诱导因子(HIF)信号通路的激活。Lucia Mincheva-Nilsson团队107在40 ℃培养条件下分别对T淋巴细胞系Jurkat和B淋巴细胞系Raji进行热应激,其所产生的外囊泡量分别增加了3倍和22倍。当他们以50~100 μmol/L高浓度过氧化氢处理Jurkat和Raji细胞时,其与正常培养条件相比外囊泡释放增加15倍和32倍。上述这些囊泡分泌增益效应取决于使用的细胞系,由此带来对囊泡生物活性的影响也有待细致考察。
对细胞施加物理刺激也可以引发细胞应激反应。Fukuta等发现低电位(0.3~0.5 mA/cm2)可诱导包括Rho GTPase在内的细胞内信号通路激活和细胞内吞作用,从而促进外囊泡分泌,当使用0.34 mA/cm2电位处理小鼠黑色素瘤和成纤维细胞60 min后,可令对应外囊泡数目增加1.26倍和1.7倍108-109。前述将核酸包入细胞外囊泡的纳米孔(CNP)生物芯片方法,可以大幅增加外泌体总产量(50倍)和包裹指定核酸外泌体的产量60。研究者认为细胞膜损伤和CNP局部加热导致热休克蛋白表达上调,细胞内Ca2+浓度升高,导致形成更多的内吞体腔内多囊泡结构。γ射线可刺激肺癌细胞中DNA损伤进而激活p53蛋白活性,进一步调控下游TSAP6蛋白,增加外囊泡的产生,这一机制同样适用于前列腺癌细胞110
综上所述,通过直接调控囊泡合成相关的基因表达、利用化学小分子靶向调节细胞功能、外加条件刺激诱导细胞应激反应,这些方法由精确调控单基因功能逐渐走向影响细胞全局代谢,由理性工程逐步向半理性、随机工程变化,在“点”“线”“面”不同维度上改造细胞增加外囊泡产量,研究者可根据需要采用合适的方法。
生产细胞外囊泡的试验管线主要包括如下单元:
①细胞培养:小规模制造细胞外囊泡可采用烧瓶、旋转器、波袋、固定床或空心纤维生物反应器来培养细胞;大规模制造囊泡则采用容量封闭的搅拌罐生物反应器或平台摇杆波袋111
②囊泡分离纯化:包括超速离心法、超滤法、尺寸排阻色谱法、免疫亲和法、聚合物沉淀法等,对于相关方法特点的综述很多,本文不再赘述。
大体上,这些方法的通量有限,更加适用于实验室场景下对含有细胞外囊泡的样本(如临床样本)进行纯化分析。一些应用案例是:利用过滤(0.2 μm)、超速离心或尺寸排阻色谱对干细胞来源的治疗用囊泡进行分离112-113;利用结合蔗糖/氧化氘超离心垫的超滤方法提纯洁净等级(GMP)级别囊泡用于临床试验114;Evox Therapeutics Inc.公司利用超滤和尺寸排阻色谱的组合来提纯囊泡。对生物反应器培养细胞来源的外囊泡,采用切向流过滤的集成封闭线路具有放大优势,可实现澄清、浓缩、透析过滤和消毒过滤全过程115。该法单次可获得3×1013颗粒的高产量,溶于临床级溶液Plasma-Lyte A可达到97%~98%的蛋白去除率。Codiak Biosciences公司采用切向流策略来增加提取过程中细胞存活率,同时以顺次过滤(0.8/0.45 μm)来分离间充质干细胞外囊泡。提取得到的囊泡根据使用时间和用途不同,分别有冷藏保存(短期使用,易融合)、冷冻保存(长期保存)、干粉保存(人工疫苗)的不同形式,这里不再赘述。
目前大部分增加细胞外囊泡产量的方法都处于实验室阶段,且主要限于人源细胞和哺乳动物细胞,对微生物改造增加囊泡产量的研究较少。细胞规模化培养难度大、培养基价格昂贵也抑制了细胞外囊泡扩大生产的规模。更为重要的是,大部分囊泡提取纯化方法都不适用于放大生产,不能对大批量连续培养的细胞样本进行处理并分离其中的胞外囊泡。因此,随着细胞外囊泡在临床应用需求的日益提高,亟需建立细胞外囊泡生产与提取纯化的工程化装置。该装置预期包含的单元模块有:
①细胞连续培养模块:实现对不同来源细胞培养参数的精细化控制,通过智能化监测细胞生理指标,建立模型计算分析出细胞生产外囊泡的最佳培养条件,支撑放大培养进行外囊泡的大批量生产。
②样本连续纯化分离模块:基于切向流等装置实现细胞样本的连续处理,分离指定粒径的细胞外囊泡,达到GMP级别,以使得提取的囊泡可直接使用。
③提取囊泡的高通量检测模块:实现所提取囊泡的高通量定性与定量检测。
通过上述单元模块的建立,有望实现细胞外囊泡生产、提取纯化、检测的全链条工程化生产线。
ZFN、TALEN、CRISPR-Cas9等技术的发展推动了基因组定点修饰向更多物种及更多靶点基因编辑的拓展。目前多数微生物、动物、植物及多种人类细胞系中都建立了可进行基因编辑的工具。多个团队对基因编辑工具进行了拓展,使得它可以实现多种单碱基置换116-119、特定碱基序列插入或删除120、翻译水平编辑121、多靶点组合失活或激活等模式122-123。将基因编辑工具与细胞外囊泡改造结合,将可能开展一些新的研究方向:可用于向受体细胞递送功能更多样化的基因编辑工具,可编辑调控囊泡的包载物与表面修饰分子,可整体改造细胞整体代谢性能,提升优质外囊泡的生产(图4)。
合成生物学技术的发展,拓展了人们从头设计合成底盘细胞生产多样化功能产品的能力。研究者们已经实现了原核微生物(支原体124、大肠杆菌等125)、真核微生物(酿酒酵母126)基因组的设计合成,证明了合成型基因组的功能存活性和遗传稳定性。合成型染色体重排提供了细胞遗传重构与代谢进化的强大驱动力127-129。基于基因组合成的强大能力,可对细胞合成外囊泡的全过程进行重新编程,建立用于囊泡合成的最高效蛋白表达图谱和非编码RNA转录图谱,构建有利于囊泡合成的驱动力,加速优势性状底盘细胞的筛选与获取(图4)。
合成生物学用于底盘细胞改造,可使其在体内合成与释放囊泡,实现疾病防治、健康主动干预等生物医学应用(图4)。聂广军团队29-30对工程菌进行改造使其胞外囊泡表达修饰靶向分子,并利用工程菌在肠道实时原位合成与释放囊泡,进行抗肿瘤研究。多种工程菌在体应用体系被设计构建。张先正团队130提出细菌光代谢疗法策略,利用光催化材料改造细菌实现对结肠癌和乳腺癌的治疗。刘庄团队131开发了可口服的工程益生菌,利用过表达过氧化氢酶和超氧化物歧化酶来清除活性氧,从而改善肠道炎症的治疗。刘尽尧团队132建立的活细菌“防护服”体系有望为细菌移植及肠炎防治提供新策略。笔者团队长期开展光遗传肠道工程菌活药研究,利用合成生物学技术为工程菌赋能,拓展了工程菌在肠炎133、肠-脑轴调控134、肠-肾轴调控135、血糖调控136等方面的应用。工程菌及其外囊泡的定制化、效能强化、安全控制的改造使用,将为在体原位合成外囊泡的生物医学应用提供强有力支撑。
工程化细胞外囊泡表面配体存在对受体亲和力或偏好性不足、正交性不足、难以靶向复合物等问题。利用配体突变库结合酵母细胞表面展示技术可用来筛选亲和力更高的配体(图4),例如:筛选获得对CD47受体亲和力提高近3万倍的SIRPα变体137,筛选对CD28、CTLA-4、PD-1亲和力关系改变的CD80突变体(作为单抗)138。针对天然配体存在的问题,基于机器学习的蛋白质结构计算模拟工具AlphaFold、RoseTTAFold等可对其进行部分解决,相关的AI工具也发展至达数十种。然而,对单一蛋白的结构解析尚存在未完全验证的问题,虽能对domain进行高精度模拟,但多个结构域构成的整体蛋白结构可能与湿实验结果存在差异。对于多蛋白复合物而言,机器学习解析目前尚无法开展结构解析。因此,结构生物学在这方面的研究显得更加重要,将对复合物靶向配体设计起到重要支撑作用(图4)。
除了对已知自然界蛋白预测结构进行修改,从头设计蛋白特异性结合结构也是一种极具潜力的思路(图4)。Michael Bronstein和Bruno Correia合作团队139提出“蛋白质表面分子指纹”的机器学习模型,可根据4亿个蛋白局部区块互作关系,经过模型训练获得类似雷达图的分子指纹。利用这些分子指纹搜索得到目标区块后,最终可生成蛋白结构支架,得到设计的互作蛋白140。刘海燕团队141建立了在蛋白质支架中设计配体结合口袋的DEPACT-PACMatch工作流程,可针对特定待结合分子设计能量最优的氨基酸残基口袋,并将口袋放入受体蛋白支架中。多种蛋白质从头设计策略有助于加速全新配体的获得,使其具有更高的亲和力和更低的串扰特性,具备服务于靶向治疗等生物医学应用的潜力。
自然界的病毒颗粒可包裹长达几万碱基对的mRNA链,而细胞外囊泡的粒径与病毒近似,也具备包裹长核酸链的潜力。更长的mRNA可以承载更多蛋白的编码序列、gRNA库,或作为海绵吸附更多miRNA,调控细胞基因表达(图4)。对于人工环形mRNA序列的设计,充分考虑5′非翻译区、3′非翻译区、IRES(病毒来源蛋白翻译起始元件)、阅读框等元件的位置关系及具体序列,可将目标蛋白表达量提高了数千倍142。具有一定长度和拓扑结构的长RNA必然会占用更大的空间,可能影响囊泡原有组分图谱。在哺乳动物细胞中存在超过500种RNA结合蛋白143,而它们占据外囊泡总蛋白中25%以上144,对其进行合理利用有助于指定RNA向囊泡的定向包载。
目前向细胞外囊泡中包载蛋白主要依靠膜蛋白与目标蛋白融合,因此可进一步挖掘和设计新的囊泡膜蛋白元件(图4)。膜蛋白的设计需要考虑:跨膜肽段区、膜两侧的蛋白骨架结构、远端功能域是否能正确折叠、整体对膜的靶向性是否受影响。小分子亲脂代谢物具有靶向脂质组分的特征,更倾向于锚定在细胞质膜附近,可利用这种靶向倾向将其包载入囊泡中。观察到或利用这个现象,研究者在细菌和酵母中构建了高产并在膜上高载胡萝卜素类产物的合成体系145-146
天然细胞外囊泡因其具有较高的生物相容性和受体细胞靶向性而被用于肿瘤、炎症、代谢病、神经疾病等疾病治疗和组织修复等研究。通过对细胞外囊泡进行表面配体修饰,可赋予其靶向治疗的精准度和可控性;通过对囊泡内容物的控制包载,可拓展用于生命功能调控的功能分子范围;通过标准化生产管线的建立,可加快其批量化生产进程。合成生物技术的发展与使用可推动工程化细胞外囊泡的定制化设计与合成,将进一步精细控制其属性、提升其效能、拓展其应用,争取将其早日广泛应用于人类健康事业。
  • 国家重点研发计划项目(2019YFA0906500)
  • 国家自然科学基金优秀青年项目(32122047)
  • 国家自然科学基金面上项目(31971300)
  • 国家自然科学基金面上项目(81771970)
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doi: 10.12211/2096-8280.2023-010
  • 接收时间:2023-02-01
  • 首发时间:2025-07-07
  • 出版时间:2024-02-29
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  • 收稿日期:2023-02-01
  • 修回日期:2023-12-27
基金
国家重点研发计划项目(2019YFA0906500)
国家自然科学基金优秀青年项目(32122047)
国家自然科学基金面上项目(31971300)
国家自然科学基金面上项目(81771970)
作者信息
    1 天津大学生命科学学院,天津市微纳生物材料与检疗技术工程中心,天津市生物大分子结构功能与应用重点实验室,天津 300072
    2 天津大学化工学院,合成生物学前沿科学中心,天津 300072

通讯作者:

王汉杰(1984—),男,博士,教授,天津大学生命科学学院副院长。研究方向为纳米生物学、合成生物学和生物医学工程等多学科交叉领域,从事肠道细菌的合成生物学设计再造及生命健康应用研究。 E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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