Article(id=1241838552577803041, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1241755870837649424, issueId=1241838547544641612, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.19636/j.cnki.cjsm42-1250/o3.2024.060, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1732032000000, receivedDateStr=2024-11-20, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1774006983179, onlineDateStr=2026-03-20, pubDate=1745337600000, pubDateStr=2025-04-23, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1774006983179, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-03-20, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1774006983179, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1774006983179, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1241838547544641612, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1241755870837649424, year='2025', volume='46', issue='2', pageStart='149', pageEnd='296', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1774006981978, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1774007061443, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1241838880882758461, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1241755870837649424, issueId=1241838547544641612, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1241838880882758462, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1241755870837649424, issueId=1241838547544641612, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=192, endPage=205, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1241838552938513189, articleId=1241838552577803041, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1241755870837649424, language=EN, title=Study on the Optimization of Elastic Isotropy in SLM Additive Manufactured 316L Steel Metamaterials, columnId=1241831201674171363, journalTitle=Chinese Journal of Solid Mechanics, columnName=Research Papers, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Most existing isotropic metamaterial designs assume that the base material possesses isotropic symmetry. However, 316L steel produced by selective laser melting (SLM) typically exhibits mechanical anisotropy, which strongly depends on the manufacturing process and parameters. The limited experimental studies currently available are insufficient to fully reveal the elastic symmetry of 316L steel under different scanning strategies, and the quantitative impact of varying laser powers on Young's modulus remains unknown. In this study, ultrasonic resonance experiments were conducted to characterize the elastic constants of 316L steel under two typical laser scanning strategies (parallel and orthogonal scanning) and two laser power levels (214.2 W and 274.2 W). The results indicate that under the orthogonal scanning strategy, the symmetry of the steel degraded to transverse isotropy at a power of 214.2 W, while the material remained orthotropic at a power of 274.2 W, indicating that transverse isotropy results from specific laser power. Compared to orthogonal scanning, 316L steel produced using parallel scanning exhibited stronger anisotropy. Within the range of laser powers investigated, Young's modulus was found to be insensitive to power variations. Based on the experimentally obtained elastic constants and finite element simulations, we optimized the elastic isotropy of three types of truss metamaterials: FCC-BCC, SC-OT, and SC-OT-BCC, achieving shape control by adjusting rod dimensions. The optimization results showed that isotropic metamaterials made from SLM 316L steel and cast 316L steel possess nearly identical elastic properties. From an application perspective, this research offers feasible solutions to overcome the technical challenges of producing isotropic metamaterials using SLM additive manufacturing.

, correspAuthors=Youdi Kuang, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=null, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Chenhua Yan, Dongming Li, Zewen Hu, Wuhuai Yan, Youdi Kuang), CN=ArticleExt(id=1241838561884963732, articleId=1241838552577803041, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1241755870837649424, language=CN, title=SLM增材制造316L钢超材料的弹性各向同性优化研究, columnId=1241831201896469478, journalTitle=固体力学学报, columnName=研究论文, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

现有各向同性超材料设计大多假设基材对称性为各向同性,然而选区激光熔化增材制造316L钢基材通常具有力学各向异性,且强烈依赖于制造工艺和参数,目前有限的实验研究还不足以全面揭示不同扫描策略下316L钢基材的弹性对称性,不同激光功率对空间杨氏模量的定量影响也未知. 本文采用超声共振实验,表征了两种典型激光扫描策略(平行扫描、正交扫描)和两种典型激光功率(214.2W、274.2W)下316L钢的弹性常数. 实验表明:采用正交扫描策略,214.2W功率下钢基材对称性退化为横观各向同性,但274.2W功率下钢基材仍只能看作正交各向异性,说明此横观各向同性只是特定激光功率下的结果. 相比正交扫描,平行扫描制造的钢基材各向异性更强. 在考察的激光功率范围内,空间杨氏模量对其不敏感. 基于实验获取的弹性常数,结合有限元数值仿真,本文对FCC-BCC,SC-OT和SC-OT-BCC三类杆系超材料开展了弹性各向同性优化,通过优化杆件尺寸实现以形控性. 优化结果表明:增材制造与铸造的316L钢各向同性超材料具有几乎相同的弹性力学性能. 从应用角度,该研究工作可以为克服SLM增材制造各向同性超材料这个技术难点提供可行的解决方案.

, correspAuthors=匡友弟, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
**E-mail:.
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1, caption=

Elastic constants of 316L steel (GPa)

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弹性常数(A)214.2W,平行(B)214.2W,正交(C)274.2W,平行(D)274.2W,正交
C11244.12±20.11446.73±14.89290.99±14.78358.57±13.03
C22401.99±24.06465.16±21.94451.51±16.84405.65±6.550
C33346.86±19.37320.76±7.650376.63±7.870287.72±7.490
C12198.28±23.90299.31±18.26260.87±15.63228.42±6.920
C13181.43±22.02271.33±11.90209.83±6.620210.50±10.47
C23211.53±21.52277.03±14.41255.32±9.190231.05±3.590
C4472.87±1.3279.04±0.7667.94±0.7984.70±2.88
C5588.08±1.4886.99±0.8095.14±1.1183.80±1.14
C6681.85±0.3377.06±0.7478.02±1.0479.50±0.94
), ArticleFig(id=1241838567761182765, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1241755870837649424, articleId=1241838552577803041, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

316L钢弹性常数(GPa)

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弹性常数(A)214.2W,平行(B)214.2W,正交(C)274.2W,平行(D)274.2W,正交
C11244.12±20.11446.73±14.89290.99±14.78358.57±13.03
C22401.99±24.06465.16±21.94451.51±16.84405.65±6.550
C33346.86±19.37320.76±7.650376.63±7.870287.72±7.490
C12198.28±23.90299.31±18.26260.87±15.63228.42±6.920
C13181.43±22.02271.33±11.90209.83±6.620210.50±10.47
C23211.53±21.52277.03±14.41255.32±9.190231.05±3.590
C4472.87±1.3279.04±0.7667.94±0.7984.70±2.88
C5588.08±1.4886.99±0.8095.14±1.1183.80±1.14
C6681.85±0.3377.06±0.7478.02±1.0479.50±0.94
), ArticleFig(id=1241838567845068848, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1241755870837649424, articleId=1241838552577803041, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=

Structural geometric parameters (mm)

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结构参数FCC-BCCSC-OTSC-OT-BCC
a5.00005.00005.0000
b1.20001.10001.1000
b′-----0.70000.600
R10.43330.33260.3688
R20.43330.33260.3688
R30.43330.33260.3688
R40.27220.31260.2673
R50.27220.31260.2673
R60.27220.31260.2673
R70.30420.26020.1586
R8----------0.2594
), ArticleFig(id=1241838567916372019, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1241755870837649424, articleId=1241838552577803041, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

结构几何参数表(mm)

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结构参数FCC-BCCSC-OTSC-OT-BCC
a5.00005.00005.0000
b1.20001.10001.1000
b′-----0.70000.600
R10.43330.33260.3688
R20.43330.33260.3688
R30.43330.33260.3688
R40.27220.31260.2673
R50.27220.31260.2673
R60.27220.31260.2673
R70.30420.26020.1586
R8----------0.2594
), ArticleFig(id=1241838568012841015, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1241755870837649424, articleId=1241838552577803041, language=EN, label=Table 3, caption=

Comparisons of shear modulus and Poisson's ratio (unit of shear modulus: GPa)

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对比项FCC-BCCSC-OTSC-OT-BCC
Gmax4.474.434.30
Gmin3.473.673.49
Gmin4.044.003.88
3.913.913.77
νmax0.370.340.35
νmin0.200.220.21
νmin0.270.270.27
ν*min0.260.260.26
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剪切模量与泊松比优化前后对比(剪切模量单位:GPa)

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
对比项FCC-BCCSC-OTSC-OT-BCC
Gmax4.474.434.30
Gmin3.473.673.49
Gmin4.044.003.88
3.913.913.77
νmax0.370.340.35
νmin0.200.220.21
νmin0.270.270.27
ν*min0.260.260.26
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SLM增材制造316L钢超材料的弹性各向同性优化研究
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鄢晨华 1 , 李东铭 2 , 胡泽文 1 , 严梧槐 1 , 匡友弟 1, 3, **
固体力学学报 | 研究论文 2025,46(2): 192-205
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固体力学学报 | 研究论文 2025, 46(2): 192-205
SLM增材制造316L钢超材料的弹性各向同性优化研究
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鄢晨华1, 李东铭2, 胡泽文1, 严梧槐1, 匡友弟1, 3, **
作者信息
  • 1暨南大学力学与建筑工程学院,广州,510632
  • 2东方电气(广州)重型机器有限公司,广州,511455
  • 3五邑大学土木建筑学院,江门,529020

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Study on the Optimization of Elastic Isotropy in SLM Additive Manufactured 316L Steel Metamaterials
Chenhua Yan1, Dongming Li2, Zewen Hu1, Wuhuai Yan1, Youdi Kuang1, 3, **
Affiliations
  • 1School of Mechanics and Construction Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632
  • 2Dongfang (Guangzhou) Heavy Machinery Co., Ltd., Guangzhou, 511455
  • 3School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Wuyi University, Jiangmen, 529020
出版时间: 2025-04-23 doi: 10.19636/j.cnki.cjsm42-1250/o3.2024.060
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现有各向同性超材料设计大多假设基材对称性为各向同性,然而选区激光熔化增材制造316L钢基材通常具有力学各向异性,且强烈依赖于制造工艺和参数,目前有限的实验研究还不足以全面揭示不同扫描策略下316L钢基材的弹性对称性,不同激光功率对空间杨氏模量的定量影响也未知. 本文采用超声共振实验,表征了两种典型激光扫描策略(平行扫描、正交扫描)和两种典型激光功率(214.2W、274.2W)下316L钢的弹性常数. 实验表明:采用正交扫描策略,214.2W功率下钢基材对称性退化为横观各向同性,但274.2W功率下钢基材仍只能看作正交各向异性,说明此横观各向同性只是特定激光功率下的结果. 相比正交扫描,平行扫描制造的钢基材各向异性更强. 在考察的激光功率范围内,空间杨氏模量对其不敏感. 基于实验获取的弹性常数,结合有限元数值仿真,本文对FCC-BCC,SC-OT和SC-OT-BCC三类杆系超材料开展了弹性各向同性优化,通过优化杆件尺寸实现以形控性. 优化结果表明:增材制造与铸造的316L钢各向同性超材料具有几乎相同的弹性力学性能. 从应用角度,该研究工作可以为克服SLM增材制造各向同性超材料这个技术难点提供可行的解决方案.

金属增材制造  /  力学超材料  /  316L钢  /  弹性各向同性优化

Most existing isotropic metamaterial designs assume that the base material possesses isotropic symmetry. However, 316L steel produced by selective laser melting (SLM) typically exhibits mechanical anisotropy, which strongly depends on the manufacturing process and parameters. The limited experimental studies currently available are insufficient to fully reveal the elastic symmetry of 316L steel under different scanning strategies, and the quantitative impact of varying laser powers on Young's modulus remains unknown. In this study, ultrasonic resonance experiments were conducted to characterize the elastic constants of 316L steel under two typical laser scanning strategies (parallel and orthogonal scanning) and two laser power levels (214.2 W and 274.2 W). The results indicate that under the orthogonal scanning strategy, the symmetry of the steel degraded to transverse isotropy at a power of 214.2 W, while the material remained orthotropic at a power of 274.2 W, indicating that transverse isotropy results from specific laser power. Compared to orthogonal scanning, 316L steel produced using parallel scanning exhibited stronger anisotropy. Within the range of laser powers investigated, Young's modulus was found to be insensitive to power variations. Based on the experimentally obtained elastic constants and finite element simulations, we optimized the elastic isotropy of three types of truss metamaterials: FCC-BCC, SC-OT, and SC-OT-BCC, achieving shape control by adjusting rod dimensions. The optimization results showed that isotropic metamaterials made from SLM 316L steel and cast 316L steel possess nearly identical elastic properties. From an application perspective, this research offers feasible solutions to overcome the technical challenges of producing isotropic metamaterials using SLM additive manufacturing.

metal additive manufacturing  /  mechanical metamaterials  /  316L steel  /  elastic isotropic optimization
鄢晨华, 李东铭, 胡泽文, 严梧槐, 匡友弟. SLM增材制造316L钢超材料的弹性各向同性优化研究. 固体力学学报, 2025 , 46 (2) : 192 -205 . DOI: 10.19636/j.cnki.cjsm42-1250/o3.2024.060
Chenhua Yan, Dongming Li, Zewen Hu, Wuhuai Yan, Youdi Kuang. Study on the Optimization of Elastic Isotropy in SLM Additive Manufactured 316L Steel Metamaterials[J]. Chinese Journal of Solid Mechanics, 2025 , 46 (2) : 192 -205 . DOI: 10.19636/j.cnki.cjsm42-1250/o3.2024.060
力学超材料是一种几何上呈现点阵形貌的结构化材料,精心设计的内部结构赋予其非同寻常力学性能,如轻质高强、负泊松比、负刚度、负压缩性等[1-3],在航空航天、智能制造、生物医疗等领域有着广泛应用[4-6]. 类似于各向同性材料,各向同性超材料因其力学性质与方向无关备受关注[3,7-9],但是,在基材对称性为各向同性条件下,力学超材料大多表现为非弹性各向同性[10]. 如满足体心立方(BCC)晶格对称性、单胞内所有杆直径相等的杆系超材料,其对角线杨氏模量远大于轴向杨氏模量[11]. 原因在于:超材料的弹性对称性不仅依赖于晶格对称性,也取决于单胞内部结构分布特征(如杆件尺寸和杆件形貌),单胞内所有杆为等半径实心杆这个分布特征破坏了相应超材料的弹性各向同性. 于是研究者们通过调整超材料单胞内部结构以实现弹性各向同性:Xu等[11]通过调整两个基本单元杆径比,实现可控的各向异性;Dejean等[12]将构建杆系超材料的实心杆替换为空心杆,通过调整其内外径比率,获得弹性各向同性结构;Ma等[13]优化三重周期极小曲面超材料不同位置的壳厚,实现弹性各向同性. 不同于上述研究中采用的各向同性基材,作为金属超材料重要制备手段的选区激光熔化(SLM)工艺,其工艺特点决定了金属基材具有显著的各向异性[14-16]. 即使从结构上(晶格对称性和单胞内部结构分布特征)保证设计的超材料为弹性各向同性,打印的成品仍呈现各向异性[17-19],与弹性各向同性设计预期相悖. 因此,SLM增材制造金属基材超材料的弹性各向同性优化是个值得研究的课题.
开展SLM增材制造金属基材超材料弹性各向同性优化,其首要任务是理解金属基材的弹性对称性,并定量表征其弹性常数. SLM工艺通常采用平行扫描、正交扫描和67°旋转扫描三类激光扫描策略,打印的基材弹性对称性强烈依赖于扫描策略[20],基材空间杨氏模量也依赖于相应激光功率参数[21]. 目前,对于不同扫描策略下的316L钢,已有实验研究采用了单轴拉伸法[18]、声波波速法[22]、晶粒取向信息法[23]等表征其弹性常数,但是还不足以全面揭示不同扫描策略下316L钢基材的弹性对称性,特别是平行和正交扫描策略下316L钢基材的弹性对称性. 理论上,SLM平行扫描和正交扫描策略下打印的316钢基材弹性对称性应满足正交各向异性[24],但相关的实验工作[25]报道了正交扫描策略获得了横观各向同性316L钢,该横观各向同性是否与特定激光扫描功率(或激光能量密度)有关,目前尚无定论. 另外,不同激光功率对空间杨氏模量的定量影响也未知. 因此,本文拟采用超声共振法等[26,27]来实验表征平行和正交扫描策略下316L钢基材的弹性常数,该方法已经应用到镍基合金[28]的弹性常数表征. 与提及的其他实验表征方法相比,该方法为无损测量,表征技术上具有简单易行,高效快捷的优点:只需加工简单的块体试样,通过单次实验便可采集足量频率数据并反演弹性常数.
实验定量表征316L钢基材的弹性常数为超材料的弹性各向同性优化打下了必要的基础,目前,在相关优化研究方面,Zhang等[18]假设67°旋转扫描策略下316L钢为横观各向同性材料,并对三重周期极小曲面超材料开展弹性各向同性优化. Ma等[29]给出了当基材对称性为横观各向同性时,杆系超材料等效弹性矩阵的解析式,以此设计各向同性杆系超材料. 但是对平行和正交扫描策略下的316L钢超材料的各向同性优化还缺乏研究. 因此,本文重点关注平行扫描和正交扫描激光策略,通过超声共振实验表征了两种策略下316L钢弹性常数,并考察了激光功率对空间杨氏模量的影响. 利用获取的弹性常数,结合有限元数值仿真开展了杆系超材料的各向同性优化. 通过优化其内部杆件半径,在相对密度恒定的条件下实现以形控性[30],为克服SLM增材制造各向同性超材料的技术难点提供可行的解决方案.
本文设计了四组超声共振实验,从定性和定量角度研究扫描策略(平行扫描、正交扫描)和激光功率(214.2W、274.2W)对316L钢基材正交各向异性弹性常数和空间杨氏模量的影响.
结构固有频率由其弹性常数、形状、密度和力学边界条件等因素决定,超声共振实验假设试样具有自由边界,通过测量其固有频率来反演其弹性常数. 具体原理为[31]:对于边界自由的给定弹性体,采用超声共振谱仪测得某段频率范围内s个固有频率p1p2,…,ps. 假定初始弹性常数,通过Rayleigh-Ritz法[32]可得此段频率范围内s个计算频率q1q2,…,qs. 通过定义如下目标函数开展最小二乘优化[33]
式中,ws为实验频率可信度,取0(不可信实测频率)或1(可信实测频率). 使用Levenberg-Marquardt算法[34]不断调整和优化弹性常数,当满足F<0.5%时迭代完成,即认为获得材料真实弹性常数.
本文采用的316L钢粉末由中航迈特公司提供,打印设备采用EOS M290. 扫描速度、铺粉层厚、舱口间距分别为928 mm/s、40 μm、100 μm,打印过程在氧含量低于0.3%的氮气气氛下进行. 打印完成后,在550 ℃下退火3小时,消除残余应力.
激光打印过程中,以30 W激光功率为增量步长,采用排水法考察了184.2 W至364.2 W范围内边长为10 mm立方块体的致密度,发现在274.2 W获得最高致密度99.54%. 文献表明最高致密度的样品通常具有最优秀的综合力学性能[35],因此本文取274.2 W的样品做测试. 为了对比研究激光功率的影响,同时采用了EOS公司推荐激光功率214.2 W打印测试样品. 激光平行扫描策略示意图见图1(a),相邻铺层激光扫描路径层间转角为0°,正交扫描策略示意图见图1(b),相邻铺层激光扫描路径层间转角为90°.
通过激光功率与扫描策略两两组合,设计了四组工艺参数,分别记为:(A)214.2W,平行;(B)214.2W,正交;(C)274.2W,平行;(D)274.2W,正交. 每组制备两个试样,共计八个(见图1(c)).
样品频率采集设备为RUSpec4000超声共振谱仪,测试频率范围为100-300 kHz,试样采用对角夹持方式(见图1(d)),与换能器点接触,近似为自由边界条件,每个试样进行两次频率采集.
图1(a),以立方试样构建方向(BD)为z轴,面内扫描方向(SD)为x轴,面内垂直二者的方向(TD)为y轴创建笛卡尔坐标系,并对平行扫描试样建立与yoz面夹角为θ的锥面,θ范围从0°(yoz面)至90°(x轴),对正交扫描试样建立与xoy面夹角为θ的锥面,θ范围从0°(xoy面)至90°(z轴). 对于四组工艺参数下的试样,实验表征得到的正交各向异性弹性常数见表1. 块体任意方向的杨氏模量,即空间杨氏模量E可根据弹性常数矩阵C得到,表达式如下:
式中,l1l2l3为方向余弦. 块体空间杨氏模量分布云图见图2. A至D四组样品的空间杨氏模量最大值分别为231.25 GPa、229.43 GPa、226.73 GPa、228.61 GPa,空间杨氏模量最小值分别为121.13 GPa、121.68 GPa、123.59 GPa、128.02 GPa,最大与最小值差异分别为90.91%、88.55%、83.45%、78.57%,已有文献报道差异范围为25%-81%[24,36,37],证实SLM增材制造316L钢基材具有强烈的各向异性. 其中A组316L钢全局杨氏模量差异最大,为90.91%,造成该现象的原因是增材制造316L具备强烈的晶体织构[24,37].
为了描述空间上杨氏模量变化趋势,本文绘制了锥面内杨氏模量最大值和最小值与夹角θ的关系曲线,分别见图3(a)和图3(b). 曲线的最高点对应着空间最大杨氏模量曲线最低点对应着空间最小杨氏模量曲线的间距代表了对应锥面内模量的波动幅度.
图3(a)显示了平行扫描策略下,214.2 W功率(A组)对应的空间最大杨氏模量出现在θ=25°附近,而274.2 W功率(C组)对应的空间最大杨氏模量出现在θ=31°附近,差异不大. 两种功率对应的空间最小杨氏模量均出现在θ=90°,即扫描方向. 通过比较两种功率下的曲线可以发现:同一个锥面内两者的差异最大只有8.29%;对比其,同一个锥面内两者的差异最大也只有3.59%,说明激光功率对杨氏模量的影响可以忽略. 此外,214.2 W功率对应的锥面内杨氏模量波动幅度最大达到15.83%;为进一步衡量其弹性对称性,本文参考了横观各向同性的四组弹性常数关系C22=C33C13=C12C55=C66C44=(C22-C23)/2,以214.2 W功率对应的弹性常数作为输入,发现此四组关系中等式两边弹性常数的数值差异最大达到13.71%. 考虑到实验误差,如果以10%作为可接受的近似上限,则该组工艺参数下的正交各向异性不可近似为横观各向同性. 这里需要说明的是:平行扫描工艺采用了零度层间转角扫描策略,决定了316L钢弹性对称性必然是正交各向异性,这里采用10%作为近似上限是合理的. 同样,274.2 W功率对应的锥面内模量波动幅度最大达到10.81%;以其弹性常数作为输入,上述四组关系中等式两边弹性常数数值差异最大达到19.57%,仍然只能看作正交各向异性.
图3(b)显示了正交扫描策略下,214.2 W和274.2 W激光功率对应锥面内最大值和最小值. 可以看到:与平行扫描相比,正交扫描模量分布规律具有相似性. 不同的是:两种激光功率下最小杨氏模量均出现在材料构建方向. 在214.2 W功率(对应激光能量密度57.70 J/mm3),正交扫描策略下(B组),锥面内模量波动不超过5.70%;以其弹性常数作为输入,上述四组关系中等式两边弹性常数数值差异最大不超过9.14%,小于10%的近似上限,其正交各向异性可近似为横观各向同性. Yuan等[25]采用正交扫描策略,只研究了激光能量密度范围48.08~64.10 J/mm3,在此范围内获得了横观各向同性316L钢. 本文使用的214 W功率对应的激光能量密度与之接近. 但是在本文使用的274.2 W高功率(对应激光能量密度73.87 J/mm3)情况下,锥面内模量波动最大达到7.80%;以其弹性常数作为输入,上述四组关系中等式两边弹性常数数值最大差异达到18.14%,则不能近似为横观各向同性. 因此,本文不仅复现了前人的结论,也证实:正交扫描策略下,316L钢正交各向异性退化为横观各向同性是个特殊的现象,在高功率(或高能量密度)下,316L钢仍只能看作正交各向异性.
为分析扫描策略对316L钢各向异性强弱的影响,本文基于实验弹性常数计算了通用各向异性指数AU[38]AU为材料各向异性的单调递增非负函数,对于各向同性材料有AU=0):在214.2 W功率下,平行扫描策略(A组)对应AU=0.3619,高于正交扫描(B组)对应的值AU=0.3475. 同样的,对于274.2 W激光功率,平行扫描策略(C组)对应AU=0.4108,高于正交扫描(D组)对应的值AU=0.2760. 可见相比平行扫描,正交扫描制造的钢基材各向异性更弱. B组弹性对称性从正交各向异性退化为横观各向同性的现象也证实了该结论. 关于扫描策略,目前SLM增材制造工艺技术与学术研究中,通常采用平行扫描、67°旋转扫描、正交扫描三种扫描策略,它们各有特点:对于平行扫描,制备的316L钢构建方向断裂伸长率可达到90%以上[39],远高于另外两种扫描策略(50%以下). 对于67°旋转扫描,制备的316L钢具有更低的各向异性[40]. 对于正交扫描,制备的316L钢具备最高的致密度(99.54%)和最优的综合力学性能[35]. 在实际的工程应用和研究文献中,三种策略选择并无显著倾向性.
考虑到激光功率对杨氏模量影响不明显,且274.2 W,正交扫描下316L钢基材具有最高的致密度,本节采用274.2 W,正交扫描316L钢基材(正交各向异性)的弹性常数,对相应立方对称杆系超材料开展弹性各向同性优化. 这三类杆系超材料的单胞见图4(a)图4(c),分别定义为FCC-BCC,SC-OT和SC-OT-BCC,它们由等截面圆形直杆构建的面心立方(FCC)、体心立方(BCC)、简单立方(SC)、八角桁架(OT)单胞组合而成. 三种超材料单胞边长均为a=5 mm,单胞相对密度均为ρ*=20%,bb′分别为单胞顶点和面心上的球形节点半径. 根据单胞的晶格对称性和杆件空间角度,独立的圆杆半径定义为:Rtt=1,2,…,8). 详细几何参数见表2.
为了说明基材弹性对称性对超材料对称性的影响,本文首先假定基材为各向同性的铸造316L钢(杨氏模量E′=190 GPa,剪切模量G′=76 GPa,泊松比ν′=0.25). 使用商业有限元软件COMSOL Multiphysics计算三类超材料等效的弹性矩阵C[41],并绘制相应杨氏模量云图,见图4(d)图4(f). 然后,本文以选定的增材制造316L钢作为基材(C11=358.57 GPa,C22=405.65 GPa,C33=287.72 GPa,C12=228.42 GPa,C13=210.50 GPa,C23=231.05 GPa,C44=84.70 GPa,C55=83.80 GPa,C66=79.50 GPa),也绘出相应超材料模量云图,见图4(g)图4(i). 对比后可以看出:当基材为各向同性时,超材料为弹性各向同性,当基材为正交各向异性时,相应超材料不再为各向同性:FCC-BCC超材料的空间杨氏模量最大值与最小值分别为11.20 GPa、8.20 GPa,差异达到36.59%,差异在三类超材料中最大. OT-SC超材料的杨氏模量最大值与最小值分别为11.12 GPa、8.76 GPa,差异在三类超材料中最小,但也达到26.94%. 这说明了超材料各向同性优化的必要性.
需要说明的是:这三类超材料单胞是经过本文人为设计的,当基材为各向同性时候,相应超材料恰好为各向同性.
超材料各向同性优化,一般通过优化内部结构参数来实现,即通过以形控性来实现逆向设计[30]. 对于以各向同性基材构建的立方对称超材料,当超材料为各向异性时,其各向同性优化只需要优化2~3个几何参数,如杆的直径[8,11]、板的厚度[8,42,43]. 在本文的研究中,根据单胞的晶格对称性和杆件空间角度,三类单胞需要独立优化的杆件半径数目t分别为t=7(FCC-BCC),t=7(SC-OT),t=8(SC-OT-BCC),即需要优化7~8个几何参数,优化难度增大. 原因在于:相比文献中的各向同性基材,本文采用的基材对称性更低.
在本文的各向同性优化中,单胞边长和相对密度保持不变,在杆件相交处设置的球形节点半径bb′亦保持恒定不变. 优化流程见图5,利用基材弹性常数和超材料初始几何参数,采用有限元方法计算超材料等效弹性矩阵C,通过等效弹性矩阵C表征超材料空间任意方向的杨氏模量. 然后采用梯度下降法迭代优化超材料内部杆件半径,降低超材料空间模量差异,直至满足迭代收敛精度0.5%,获得各向同性超材料. 以SC-OT-BCC为例,包含8个优化参数,即Rtt=1,2,…,8),优化收敛精度控制目标为:(Emax-Emin)/Emin≤0.5%. 优化迭代算法如下:
t≤7时候,即对于前7根杆,杆半径优化采用式(3),Rtk+1)为第k次优化迭代后的Rt杆的杆半径. 对于第k个优化步,单胞7个晶体学方向<100>、<010>、<001>、<011>、<101>、<110>、<111>杨氏模量定义为Ett=1,2,…,7),其均值为,指数mm≥1)的取值满足,用于控制杆半径优化幅度. 即式(3)通过优化<100>、<010>、<001>、<011>、<101>、<110>、<111>方向的杆件半径Rtt=1,2,…,7),来缩小超材料对应方向杨氏模量Ett=1,2,…,7)之间的差异. 当t=8时,即对于第8根杆,根据超材料恒定相对密度ρ*和公式(3)获得的其他7根杆半径,可直接确定其k +1步的半径R8k+1).
对于只含有7个优化参数的FCC-BCC和SC-OT超材料,优化过程类似于SC-OT-BCC. 即首先优化并获得前6根杆半径Rtt=1,2,…,6),第7根杆的杆半径R7由恒定相对密度ρ*和其他6根杆半径直接确定.
上述优化迭代算法通过MATLAB实现[44]. 三类超材料的杆件半径优化迭代过程分别见图6(a)图6(c),经过4至7次优化迭代后可达到收敛精度. 优化后单胞见图6(d)图6(f),优化后杆件半径范围在0.1432至0.5805 mm. 对比优化前后的半径可知,半径增量最大杆为SC-OT-BCC中的R3杆,增量达35%,原因在于R3杆轴向为<001>,对应316L钢基材杨氏模量最小方向(可参考图2(d)). 半径减少量最大的杆为SC-OT中的R4杆,减少10%,原因在于R4杆轴向为<111>,对应316L钢基材杨氏模量最强方向. 三类超材料中,R1优化前后的半径几乎保持不变,原因在于每个迭代步中,R1杆轴向为<100>,超材料在该方向杨氏模量E1与模量均值接近,因而无须对R1杆的半径做较大优化调整. 以SC-OT-BCC为例,5个迭代步中,E1差异不超过0.60%,故R1杆半径增量仅1.67%,变化可以忽略.
FCC-BCC,SC-OT和SC-OT-BCC三类超材料优化后模量云图见图6(g)图6(i). 可以看到,经过优化后,三种超材料均实现了各向同性,优化后杨氏模量分别为10.29 GPa、10.17 GPa和9.85 GPa. 当基材为铸造316L钢时,三类各向同性超材料杨氏模量分别为9.85 GPa、9.82 GPa和9.48 GPa. 这说明增材制造与对应铸造的各向同性超材料具有近乎相同的杨氏模量,最大差异仅为4.47%. 本文对增材制造钢基材(即图1(c)中立方试样)空间上的杨氏模量进行均值计算,得到其杨氏模量均值为181.29 GPa,接近于铸造钢的杨氏模量190 GPa,从而间接解释了增材制造与对应铸造的各向同性超材料杨氏模量接近的原因.
本文进一步分析了FCC-BCC,SC-OT和SC-OT-BCC三类超材料剪切模量与泊松比. 优化前后主要的数值结果见表3. 对于基材为增材制造316L钢,表中GmaxGminνmaxνmin为优化前超材料剪切模量、泊松比的最大值和最小值,Gν为优化后各向同性超材料剪切模量和泊松比,G*ν*对应基材为铸造316L钢时各向同性超材料剪切模量和泊松比. 可以看到:优化前FCC-BCC超材料剪切模量最大值与最小值分别为4.47 GPa、3.47 GPa,差异最大,达到28.82%. SC-OT超材料的剪切模量最大值与最小值分别为4.43 GPa、3.67 GP,差异在三类超材料中最小,但也达到20.71%. 优化后三类各向同性超材料剪切模量分别为4.04 GPa、4.00 GPa和3.88 GPa,当基材为铸造316L钢时,三类各向同性超材料剪切模量分别为3.91 GPa、3.91 GPa和3.77 GPa,增材制造与对应铸造的各向同性超材料具有几乎相同的剪切模量.
同样的,优化前FCC-BCC超材料泊松比最大值与最小值分别为0.37、0.20,差异最大,达到85.0%. SC-OT超材料的泊松比最大值与最小值分别为0.34、0.22,差异在三类超材料中最小,但也达到54.55%. 优化后三类各向同性超材料泊松比均为0.27. 当基材为铸造316L钢时,三类各向同性超材料泊松比均为0.26. 可以看到:增材制造与对应铸造的各向同性超材料具有几乎相同的泊松比,其泊松比、杨氏模量和剪切模量同样满足各向同性材料关系G=E/2(1+ν).
本文通过超声共振实验研究SLM工艺中扫描策略和激光功率对316L钢各向异性的影响,基于实验获取的弹性常数,对FCC-BCC,SC-OT和SC-OT-BCC三类杆系超材料开展各向同性数值优化研究,得到如下结论:
(1)实验分别给出了平行和正交扫描策略下,214.2 W和274.2 W功率对应的316L钢的弹性常数. 在选取的激光功率范围内(对应激光能量密度57.70~73.87 J/mm3),激光功率对杨氏模量影响可以忽略. 平行扫描策略下最小杨氏模量出现在扫描方向,而正交扫描策略下最小杨氏模量出现在材料构建方向.
(2)正交扫描策略下,316L钢正交各向异性退化为横观各向同性的现象强烈依赖于激光功率. 在214.2 W功率下,316L钢可视为横观各向同性;在274.2 W功率下,316L钢仍保持正交各向异性. 相同激光功率下,正交扫描比平行扫描制造的316L钢的各向异性更弱.
(3)通过分别优化FCC-BCC,SC-OT和SC-OT-BCC三类杆系超材料的杆件半径,本文均获得了弹性各向同性超材料,并且优化后的超材料与对应铸造各向同性超材料具有几乎相同的弹性力学性能. 考虑这类超材料铸造的难度以及SLM增材制造钢基材显著的各向异性,本文的优化工作可为SLM增材制造各向同性超材料的逆向设计提供参考方案.
  • 国家自然科学基金项目(12172150)
  • 广东省自然科学基金项目(2022A1515010287)
  • 第四代核电示范快堆汽水分离再热器研制项目(2021ZD0009)
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doi: 10.19636/j.cnki.cjsm42-1250/o3.2024.060
  • 接收时间:2024-11-20
  • 首发时间:2026-03-20
  • 出版时间:2025-04-23
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  • 收稿日期:2024-11-20
基金
国家自然科学基金项目(12172150)
广东省自然科学基金项目(2022A1515010287)
第四代核电示范快堆汽水分离再热器研制项目(2021ZD0009)
作者信息
    1暨南大学力学与建筑工程学院,广州,510632
    2东方电气(广州)重型机器有限公司,广州,511455
    3五邑大学土木建筑学院,江门,529020

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
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genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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