Article(id=1148011770381333067, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119989267898375, issueId=1148087921783075097, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.7654/j.issn.2097-1974.20240512, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1708531200000, receivedDateStr=2024-02-22, revisedDate=1713888000000, revisedDateStr=2024-04-24, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1751636935086, onlineDateStr=2025-07-04, pubDate=1729785600000, pubDateStr=2024-10-25, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1751636935086, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-07-04, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1751636935085, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1751636935085, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1148087921783075097, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119989267898375, year='2024', volume='47', issue='5', pageStart='1', pageEnd='106', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1751655090995, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1754895903201, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1161680873427390506, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119989267898375, issueId=1148087921783075097, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1161680873427390507, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119989267898375, issueId=1148087921783075097, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=81, endPage=91, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1148011770607825508, articleId=1148011770381333067, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119989267898375, language=EN, title=Experimental and Numerical Study on Phase Change Transpiration Cooling for a Wedge-shaped Nose Cone with a Gradient Porosity Layout, columnId=1154067662675104070, journalTitle=Missiles and Space Vehicles, columnName=Environment and Test, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

In order to improve the transpiration cooling efficiency at the stagnation point of the nose cone of the near space vehicle, a wedge-shaped porous nose cone with a gradient porosity layout is proposed and the phase change transpiration cooling is experimentally and numerically investigated under different coolant injection ratio. The experimental results indicate that the gradient porosity layout can effectively improve the cooling efficiency at the stagnation point and the overall temperature uniformity of the porous surface. When the coolant injection ratio $M$ is 0.125%, the cooling efficiency at the stagnation point is increased by 52.4%, and the overall cooling efficiency is increased by 31.7%. The numerical results indicate that the gradient porosity layout increases the coolant mass flux at the leading edge and optimizes coolant distribution by moving the maximum pressure value at the stagnation point downstream. When the coolant injection ratio $M ={0.15}\%$, the coolant mass flux at the stagnation point is increased 76%. In addition, the film formed by the coolant flows out of the porous structure is more uniform.

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为提高飞行器鼻锥驻点处的发汗冷却效率,提出了一个孔隙率呈梯度分布的楔形多孔鼻锥,在不同冷却剂注入率下,在亚声速条件下对相变发汗冷却进行了试验与数值研究。结果表明,梯度孔隙率的设置可以有效提高驻点处的冷却效率和多孔表面的整体温度均匀度。冷却剂注入率$M ={0.125}\%$时,驻点处冷却效率提高了${52.4}\%$,整体冷却效率提高了31.7%。数值结果表明,梯度孔隙率通过使多孔内最大压力值从驻点后移来提高前缘处的冷却剂流量,改善冷却剂的流动分布,冷却剂注入率为$M ={0.150}\%$时,驻点处冷却剂流量提高了76%。此外,冷却剂流出多孔结构后在外表面形成的气膜分布更为均匀。

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刘逸飞(1999—),男,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为发汗冷却技术。

刘陆广(1983—),男,博士,高级工程师,主要研究方向为飞行器总体设计。

窦怡彬(1984—),男,博士,高级工程师,主要研究方向为飞行器气动加热及热防护结构设计。

刘韬略(1997—),男,博士,主要研究方向为多孔介质两相流及主动热防护设计。

贺菲(1987-),女,博士,副研究员,主要研究方向为发汗冷却技术。

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刘逸飞(1999—),男,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为发汗冷却技术。

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刘逸飞(1999—),男,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为发汗冷却技术。

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窦怡彬(1984—),男,博士,高级工程师,主要研究方向为飞行器气动加热及热防护结构设计。

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Research on the integrated calculation method of aerodynamics and heat transfer for hypersonic blunt body[J]. 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figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
多孔区域 A B C D
${d}_{\mathrm{p}}/\mathrm{{\mu m}}$ 80 53 34 20
$\varepsilon$ 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
$K/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$ $2 \times {10}^{-{11}}$ $3 \times {10}^{-{12}}$ $4 \times {10}^{-{13}}$ $3 \times {10}^{-{14}}$
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多孔区域 A B C D
${d}_{\mathrm{p}}/\mathrm{{\mu m}}$ 80 53 34 20
$\varepsilon$ 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
$K/{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$ $2 \times {10}^{-{11}}$ $3 \times {10}^{-{12}}$ $4 \times {10}^{-{13}}$ $3 \times {10}^{-{14}}$
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参数 计算公式
混合密度 $\rho ={\rho }_{\square }s +{\rho }_{\square }\left({1 - s}\right)$
混合运动粘度 $v =\frac{1}{{k}_{\mathrm{{rl}}}/{v}_{1}+ {k}_{\mathrm{{rv}}}/{v}_{\mathrm{v}}}$
相对渗透率 ${k}_{\mathrm{{rl}}}= {s}^{3},{k}_{\mathrm{{rv}}}= {\left( 1 - s\right)}^{3}$
相对迁移率 ${\lambda }_{\mathrm{l}}= v{k}_{\mathrm{{rl}}}/{v}_{\mathrm{l}},{\lambda }_{\mathrm{v}}= v{k}_{\mathrm{{rv}}}/{v}_{\mathrm{v}}$
混合达西速度 $\mathbf{u}= \left({{\rho }_{1}{\mathbf{u}}_{1}+ {\rho }_{\mathrm{v}}{\mathbf{u}}_{\mathrm{V}}}\right)/\rho$
混合焓 ${h}_{\mathrm{f}}= \left({{\rho }_{1}s{h}_{1}+ {\rho }_{\mathrm{v}}\left({1 - s}\right){h}_{\mathrm{v}}}\right)/\rho$
混合动力粘度 $\mu ={\rho v}$
比表面积 ${\alpha }_{\mathrm{{sf}}}= 6\left({1 -\varepsilon }\right)/{d}_{\mathrm{P}}$
扩散系数 ${\gamma }_{\mathrm{h}}= \frac{\frac{{\rho }_{1}{h}_{1,\text{sat }}}{{\mu }_{1}}{k}_{\mathrm{{rl}}}+ \frac{{\rho }_{\mathrm{v}}{h}_{\mathrm{v},\text{sat }}}{{\mu }_{\mathrm{v}}}{k}_{\mathrm{{rv}}}}{\frac{{\rho }_{1}{h}_{1,\text{sat }}}{{\mu }_{1}}s +\frac{{\rho }_{\mathrm{v}}{h}_{\mathrm{v},\text{sat }}}{{\mu }_{\mathrm{v}}}\left({1 - s}\right)}$
对流换热系数 ${h}_{\mathrm{{si}}}= \left(\frac{{k}_{i}}{{d}_{\mathrm{P}}}\right)\left({{2.0}+ {1.1}\mathop{\Pr }\limits_{i}^{{0.33}}{\operatorname{Re}}^{0.6}}\right), i = 1,\mathrm{v}$
流固换热量 $\left\{\begin{matrix}{q}_{\mathrm{{sf}}}= &\\{h}_{\mathrm{{sl}}}{\alpha }_{\mathrm{{sf}}}\left({{T}_{\mathrm{s}}- {T}_{1}}\right)& \text{ in liquid region }\\{q}_{\text{boil }}+ \left({1 - s}\right){h}_{\mathrm{{sv}}}{\alpha }_{\mathrm{{sf}}}\left({{T}_{\mathrm{s}}- {T}_{\mathrm{{sat}}}}\right)& \text{ in two - phase region }\\{h}_{\mathrm{{sv}}}{\alpha }_{\mathrm{{sf}}}\left({{T}_{\mathrm{s}}- {T}_{\mathrm{v}}}\right)& \text{ in vapor region }\end{matrix}\right.$
核沸腾换热量 ${q}_{\text{boil }}= s{\alpha }_{\mathrm{{sf}}}\mu {H}_{\mathrm{{lv}}}{\left\lbrack \frac{g\left({{\rho }_{1}- {\rho }_{\mathrm{v}}}\right)}{\sigma }\right\rbrack }^{0.5}{\left\lbrack \frac{{c}_{\mathrm{p},1}\left({{T}_{\mathrm{s}}- {T}_{\text{sat }}}\right)}{{c}_{\mathrm{s},\mathrm{f}}{h}_{\text{fg }}\mathop{\Pr }\limits_{1}}\right\rbrack }^{3}$
有效导热系数 ${k}_{\mathrm{f},\mathrm{{eff}}}= \varepsilon {k}_{\mathrm{f}},{k}_{\mathrm{s},\mathrm{{eff}}}= \left({1 - s}\right){k}_{\mathrm{s}}$
毛细压力方程 $J\left( s\right)= {1.417}\left({1 - s}\right)- {2.120}{\left( 1 - s\right)}^{2}+ {1.263}{\left( 1 - s\right)}^{3}$
毛细扩散系数 $D\left( s\right)= \frac{K}{v\left( s\right)}\lambda \left({1 -\lambda }\right){\left(\frac{\varepsilon }{K}\right)}^{0.5}\sigma \left\lbrack {-{J}^{\prime }\left( s\right)}\right\rbrack$
), ArticleFig(id=1197272792098980718, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1146119989267898375, articleId=1148011770381333067, language=CN, label=表2, caption=LTNE-TPMM本构关系, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
参数 计算公式
混合密度 $\rho ={\rho }_{\square }s +{\rho }_{\square }\left({1 - s}\right)$
混合运动粘度 $v =\frac{1}{{k}_{\mathrm{{rl}}}/{v}_{1}+ {k}_{\mathrm{{rv}}}/{v}_{\mathrm{v}}}$
相对渗透率 ${k}_{\mathrm{{rl}}}= {s}^{3},{k}_{\mathrm{{rv}}}= {\left( 1 - s\right)}^{3}$
相对迁移率 ${\lambda }_{\mathrm{l}}= v{k}_{\mathrm{{rl}}}/{v}_{\mathrm{l}},{\lambda }_{\mathrm{v}}= v{k}_{\mathrm{{rv}}}/{v}_{\mathrm{v}}$
混合达西速度 $\mathbf{u}= \left({{\rho }_{1}{\mathbf{u}}_{1}+ {\rho }_{\mathrm{v}}{\mathbf{u}}_{\mathrm{V}}}\right)/\rho$
混合焓 ${h}_{\mathrm{f}}= \left({{\rho }_{1}s{h}_{1}+ {\rho }_{\mathrm{v}}\left({1 - s}\right){h}_{\mathrm{v}}}\right)/\rho$
混合动力粘度 $\mu ={\rho v}$
比表面积 ${\alpha }_{\mathrm{{sf}}}= 6\left({1 -\varepsilon }\right)/{d}_{\mathrm{P}}$
扩散系数 ${\gamma }_{\mathrm{h}}= \frac{\frac{{\rho }_{1}{h}_{1,\text{sat }}}{{\mu }_{1}}{k}_{\mathrm{{rl}}}+ \frac{{\rho }_{\mathrm{v}}{h}_{\mathrm{v},\text{sat }}}{{\mu }_{\mathrm{v}}}{k}_{\mathrm{{rv}}}}{\frac{{\rho }_{1}{h}_{1,\text{sat }}}{{\mu }_{1}}s +\frac{{\rho }_{\mathrm{v}}{h}_{\mathrm{v},\text{sat }}}{{\mu }_{\mathrm{v}}}\left({1 - s}\right)}$
对流换热系数 ${h}_{\mathrm{{si}}}= \left(\frac{{k}_{i}}{{d}_{\mathrm{P}}}\right)\left({{2.0}+ {1.1}\mathop{\Pr }\limits_{i}^{{0.33}}{\operatorname{Re}}^{0.6}}\right), i = 1,\mathrm{v}$
流固换热量 $\left\{\begin{matrix}{q}_{\mathrm{{sf}}}= &\\{h}_{\mathrm{{sl}}}{\alpha }_{\mathrm{{sf}}}\left({{T}_{\mathrm{s}}- {T}_{1}}\right)& \text{ in liquid region }\\{q}_{\text{boil }}+ \left({1 - s}\right){h}_{\mathrm{{sv}}}{\alpha }_{\mathrm{{sf}}}\left({{T}_{\mathrm{s}}- {T}_{\mathrm{{sat}}}}\right)& \text{ in two - phase region }\\{h}_{\mathrm{{sv}}}{\alpha }_{\mathrm{{sf}}}\left({{T}_{\mathrm{s}}- {T}_{\mathrm{v}}}\right)& \text{ in vapor region }\end{matrix}\right.$
核沸腾换热量 ${q}_{\text{boil }}= s{\alpha }_{\mathrm{{sf}}}\mu {H}_{\mathrm{{lv}}}{\left\lbrack \frac{g\left({{\rho }_{1}- {\rho }_{\mathrm{v}}}\right)}{\sigma }\right\rbrack }^{0.5}{\left\lbrack \frac{{c}_{\mathrm{p},1}\left({{T}_{\mathrm{s}}- {T}_{\text{sat }}}\right)}{{c}_{\mathrm{s},\mathrm{f}}{h}_{\text{fg }}\mathop{\Pr }\limits_{1}}\right\rbrack }^{3}$
有效导热系数 ${k}_{\mathrm{f},\mathrm{{eff}}}= \varepsilon {k}_{\mathrm{f}},{k}_{\mathrm{s},\mathrm{{eff}}}= \left({1 - s}\right){k}_{\mathrm{s}}$
毛细压力方程 $J\left( s\right)= {1.417}\left({1 - s}\right)- {2.120}{\left( 1 - s\right)}^{2}+ {1.263}{\left( 1 - s\right)}^{3}$
毛细扩散系数 $D\left( s\right)= \frac{K}{v\left( s\right)}\lambda \left({1 -\lambda }\right){\left(\frac{\varepsilon }{K}\right)}^{0.5}\sigma \left\lbrack {-{J}^{\prime }\left( s\right)}\right\rbrack$
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基于梯度孔隙率的楔形鼻锥相变发汗冷却研究
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刘逸飞 1 , 刘陆广 2 , 窦怡彬 2 , 刘韬略 1 , 贺菲 1
导弹与航天运载技术 | 环境与试验技术 2024,47(5): 81-91
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导弹与航天运载技术 | 环境与试验技术 2024, 47(5): 81-91
基于梯度孔隙率的楔形鼻锥相变发汗冷却研究
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刘逸飞1, 刘陆广2, 窦怡彬2, 刘韬略1, 贺菲1
作者信息
  • 1 中国科学技术大学,合肥,230026
  • 2 上海机电工程研究所,上海,201109
  • 刘逸飞(1999—),男,硕士研究生,主要研究方向为发汗冷却技术。

    刘陆广(1983—),男,博士,高级工程师,主要研究方向为飞行器总体设计。

    窦怡彬(1984—),男,博士,高级工程师,主要研究方向为飞行器气动加热及热防护结构设计。

    刘韬略(1997—),男,博士,主要研究方向为多孔介质两相流及主动热防护设计。

    贺菲(1987-),女,博士,副研究员,主要研究方向为发汗冷却技术。

Experimental and Numerical Study on Phase Change Transpiration Cooling for a Wedge-shaped Nose Cone with a Gradient Porosity Layout
Yifei LIU1, Luguang LIU2, Yibin DOU2, Taolue LIU1, Fei HE1
Affiliations
  • 1 University of Science and Technology of China,Hefei,230026
  • 2 Shanghai Electro-mechanical Engineering Institute,Shanghai,201109
出版时间: 2024-10-25 doi: 10.7654/j.issn.2097-1974.20240512
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为提高飞行器鼻锥驻点处的发汗冷却效率,提出了一个孔隙率呈梯度分布的楔形多孔鼻锥,在不同冷却剂注入率下,在亚声速条件下对相变发汗冷却进行了试验与数值研究。结果表明,梯度孔隙率的设置可以有效提高驻点处的冷却效率和多孔表面的整体温度均匀度。冷却剂注入率$M ={0.125}\%$时,驻点处冷却效率提高了${52.4}\%$,整体冷却效率提高了31.7%。数值结果表明,梯度孔隙率通过使多孔内最大压力值从驻点后移来提高前缘处的冷却剂流量,改善冷却剂的流动分布,冷却剂注入率为$M ={0.150}\%$时,驻点处冷却剂流量提高了76%。此外,冷却剂流出多孔结构后在外表面形成的气膜分布更为均匀。

主动热防护  /  发汗冷却  /  多孔介质  /  液气相变  /  梯度孔隙率

In order to improve the transpiration cooling efficiency at the stagnation point of the nose cone of the near space vehicle, a wedge-shaped porous nose cone with a gradient porosity layout is proposed and the phase change transpiration cooling is experimentally and numerically investigated under different coolant injection ratio. The experimental results indicate that the gradient porosity layout can effectively improve the cooling efficiency at the stagnation point and the overall temperature uniformity of the porous surface. When the coolant injection ratio $M$ is 0.125%, the cooling efficiency at the stagnation point is increased by 52.4%, and the overall cooling efficiency is increased by 31.7%. The numerical results indicate that the gradient porosity layout increases the coolant mass flux at the leading edge and optimizes coolant distribution by moving the maximum pressure value at the stagnation point downstream. When the coolant injection ratio $M ={0.15}\%$, the coolant mass flux at the stagnation point is increased 76%. In addition, the film formed by the coolant flows out of the porous structure is more uniform.

active thermal protection  /  transpiration cooling  /  porous media  /  liquid-gas phase change  /  thermal protection
刘逸飞, 刘陆广, 窦怡彬, 刘韬略, 贺菲. 基于梯度孔隙率的楔形鼻锥相变发汗冷却研究. 导弹与航天运载技术, 2024 , 47 (5) : 81 -91 . DOI: 10.7654/j.issn.2097-1974.20240512
Yifei LIU, Luguang LIU, Yibin DOU, Taolue LIU, Fei HE. Experimental and Numerical Study on Phase Change Transpiration Cooling for a Wedge-shaped Nose Cone with a Gradient Porosity Layout[J]. Missiles and Space Vehicles, 2024 , 47 (5) : 81 -91 . DOI: 10.7654/j.issn.2097-1974.20240512
高速飞行产生的巨大气动热是飞行器面临的严重问题, 特别是一些关键部位, 如鼻锥、机翼前缘和方向舵[1-5]。研究表明[6],飞行器处于速度为15马赫的起飞阶段时,表面最高温度可能达到${5000}\mathrm{\;K}$,远远超过了所有材料的温度极限。因此, 研发新型、高效的热防护技术至关重要。由于其高冷却效率和低冷却剂消耗量, 发汗冷却被广泛用于承受极高热流的高马赫数飞行器的有效主动热防护技术[7-8],例如飞行器前缘[9-10]、超燃冲压发动机燃烧室[11-13]和涡轮叶片[14-15]等。根据冷却剂类型,发汗冷却主要分为气体发汗冷却和液体发汗冷却两类。对于气体发汗冷却, 虽然少量冷却剂可以使结构显著降温,但当冷却剂的注入率进一步增加[16]时,温度降低的幅度会逐渐减小, 此时, 气态冷却剂的冷却能力和冷却效率都受到了限制。相比之下,由于液态水有着巨大的相变潜热,且无毒,易储存运输[17],液态水相变发汗冷却近年来得到广泛关注。试验方面, Foreest等[18], Prokein等${}^{\lfloor {19}\rfloor }$, Shen等${}^{\lfloor {20}\rfloor }$, Huang等${}^{\lfloor {21}\rfloor }$分别在马赫数为5.45、2.4、4.2、2.5的来流条件下开展了发汗冷却试验, 试验结果充分证明了发汗冷却在应对极高热流方面的应用潜力。数值方面, Shi等[22]研究了热非平衡条件下的两相混合模型(LTNE-TPMM), 该模型考虑了流固之间的对流换热。在此基础上$\mathrm{{Su}}$[23]通过引入混合流体温度提高了计算的收敛性并分析了多孔介质内的冷却剂注入压力和质量流量的关系。
然而, 在应用于飞行器鼻锥热防护时, 发汗冷却会面临严重的冷却不均问题。为减小高马赫数飞行时的气动阻力,鼻锥的曲率半径通常设计得极小,而鼻锥承受的热流与曲率半径平方根呈负相关[24],这会极大提高鼻锥驻点处的热流, 为驻点处的冷却带来严峻的考验, 如何改善驻点处的冷却效果成为了鼻锥发汗冷却的关键问题。Xiong等[25]设计了分腔结构,在鼻锥驻点处采用较高的冷却剂注入压力。Huang等[26]通过在鼻锥驻点处打孔来提高冷却剂流量, 然而分腔会增加冷却剂注入系统的复杂度,打孔则降低了材料的力学强度。Wu等[27]设计了一种孔隙率呈梯度分布的楔形鼻锥多孔结构,采用空气作为冷却剂进行了试验和数值发汗冷却研究, 结果表明梯度孔隙率可以有效提高驻点冷却效果。不同于气体, 液体在相变时流阻的急剧变化会使得传热严重恶化,因此,梯度孔隙率中液态水的相变和流动机理需要深入研究。Dong等[28]在给定的热流条件下,在多孔平板内对相变发汗冷却进行了数值研究。Cheng等[29]设计了一块孔隙率梯度分布的多孔平板, 通过试验研究了其发汗冷却效果, 结果表明梯度孔隙率能有效降低不均匀热流分布下的温度峰值。
目前对梯度孔隙率下的相变发汗冷却研究主要集中于多孔平板结构, 赋予其特定的热流分布来分析发汗冷却特性,而飞行器多孔鼻锥结构在飞行时所承受的气动力和气动热会对发汗冷却效果产生显著影响。因此, 在耦合外流场条件下对梯度孔隙率分布的多孔鼻锥开展系统的相变发汗冷却研究极为重要。本文通过试验和数值方法对孔隙率呈梯度分布的多孔鼻锥模型进行了相变发汗冷却研究。首先, 利用高温风洞通过热考核试验比较了均匀和梯度孔隙分布两种多孔结构表面的温度以及冷却效果。此后, 在与高温外流场耦合的条件下对两种多孔结构的冷却效率、压力、冷却剂流动特性以及气膜覆盖进行了数值研究。
为研究孔隙率分布对发汗冷却效果的影响, 本文设计了两种几何尺寸相同的多孔鼻锥试验件, 均匀多孔结构(UP)和梯度多孔结构(GP), 如图1所示。 试验件采用IN718镍基高温合金, 通过3D打印制备而成,鼻锥的外半径、内半径和顶尖角分别为$5\mathrm{\;{mm}}$$2\mathrm{\;{mm}}$、和${14}^{\circ }$,分为多孔区域和非渗透区域两部分, 两种结构的区别在于多孔区域。在梯度多孔结构中, 多孔区域根据孔隙率大小分为4层:$\mathrm{A}$层(长度$1\mathrm{\;{mm}}$)、$\mathrm{B}$层(长度$2\mathrm{\;{mm}}$)、$\mathrm{C}$层(长度$2\mathrm{\;{mm}}$)和$\mathrm{D}$层(长度${10}\mathrm{\;{mm}}$)。其中$\mathrm{A}$层的孔隙率最高,具体的结构参数见表1,其中的渗透率$K$由Ergun[30]提供的经验公式计算得出, 见式(1)。均匀多孔结构的孔隙率为定值, 其大小取梯度多孔结构孔隙率的平均值, 即0.35 。
$ K =\frac{{\varepsilon }^{3}{d}_{\mathrm{p}}^{2}}{{150}{\left( 1 -\varepsilon \right)}^{2}}$
${d}_{\mathrm{p}}= \frac{4 \cdot \varepsilon \cdot {d}_{\mathrm{s}}}{5 \cdot \left({1 -\varepsilon }\right)} $
式中$\varepsilon$为孔隙率;${d}_{\mathrm{p}}$为多孔结构的等效粒径;${d}_{\mathrm{s}}$为金属颗粒的直径。由于多孔介质的孔隙大小在微观上呈随机分布, 并没有一个固定的数值, 因此提出了该物理量用来描述多孔孔隙的尺寸大小。当多孔介质采用相同直径的球形金属颗粒制备而成时,${d}_{\mathrm{p}}$可由式(2)求得。本文使用的镍基高温合金颗粒粉末的球形粒径统一为${100\mu }\mathrm{m}$
试验在中国科学技术大学的电弧加热风洞平台上进行,试验系统如图2所示。
整个系统分为两部分, 主流部分和冷却剂部分。 在主流部分中, 空气由压缩机压缩后进入储气罐储存, 流经干燥机和过滤器后得到干燥、净化后的主流空气,再通过精度为$\pm 2\%\mathrm{{RFS}}$的质量流量计进行精准的流量控制, 最后进入高温风洞, 由加热段的电阻丝加热,电阻丝温度由精度为$\pm 1\mathrm{\;K}$的温度控制器精确控制,最后由收缩段整流并从截面积为${40}\mathrm{\;{mm}}\times {60}\mathrm{\;{mm}}$、 水力直径为${46}\mathrm{\;{mm}}$的矩形出口流出,出口处的主流温度由精度为$\pm 2\mathrm{\;K}$$\mathrm{K}$型热电偶监测。在冷却剂部分中, 冷却剂采用去离子水, 由两个并联安装的泵交替工作, 持续稳定地向多孔鼻锥试验件内输送冷却剂。多孔试验件放置于风洞出口处, 被高温主流持续加热, 其表面二维温度场由精度为$\pm 1\%$F.S.的高温红外摄像机捕获。首先设定电阻丝的加热温度, 当风洞出口处的主流温度达到电阻丝的加热温度后, 利用红外摄像机监测多孔试验件表面的温度场, 并开始利用水泵按照恒定的体积流量注水。电阻丝的加热温度为${700}\mathrm{\;K}$,主流雷诺数为${1.1}\times {10}^{4}$,冷却剂注入率$M$分别为${0.100}\%$、 0.125%、0.15% 和0.175%,即2.1 mL/min、${2.625}\mathrm{\;{mL}}/\mathrm{{min}}$${3.15}\mathrm{\;{mL}}/\mathrm{{min}}$${3.675}\mathrm{\;{mL}}/\mathrm{{min}}$,初始温度为${300}\mathrm{\;K}$。注入率$M$由式(3)计算得到[31]
$ M =\frac{{\rho }_{\mathrm{f}}{V}_{\mathrm{f}}}{{M}_{\infty }}$
式中${\rho }_{\mathrm{f}}$为冷却剂的密度;${V}_{\mathrm{f}}$${M}_{\infty }$分别为冷却剂的体积流量和主流的质量流量。
冷却效率$\eta$用来描述相变发汗冷却的冷却效果, 由式(4)定义[32]:
$\eta =\frac{{T}_{\infty }- {T}_{\mathrm{w}}}{{T}_{\infty }- {T}_{\mathrm{f}}}$
式中${T}_{\mathrm{w}}$为主流出口温度;${T}_{\mathrm{w}}$${T}_{\mathrm{f}}$分别为冷却后的多孔表面温度和冷却剂注入温度。
试验中的仪器设备均存在测量误差, 为了表征测量误差对试验结果的影响,根据误差传播公式(5)、(6)得到了试验中计算的参数的不确定度,通过计算, 最大不确定度分别为1.6%和1.46%。
$\frac{\Delta M}{M}= \sqrt{{\left(\frac{\Delta {\rho }_{\mathrm{f}}}{{\rho }_{\mathrm{f}}}\right)}^{2}+ {\left(\frac{\Delta {V}_{\mathrm{f}}}{{V}_{\mathrm{f}}}\right)}^{2}+ {\left(\frac{\Delta {\dot{m}}_{\infty }}{{\dot{m}}_{\infty }}\right)}^{2}}$
$\frac{\Delta \eta }{\eta }= \sqrt{\frac{{\left(\Delta {T}_{\infty }\right)}^{2}+ {\left(\Delta {T}_{\mathrm{c}}\right)}^{2}}{{T}_{\infty }- {T}_{\mathrm{c}}}+ \frac{{\left(\Delta {T}_{\infty }\right)}^{2}+ {\left(\Delta {T}_{\mathrm{w}}\right)}^{2}}{{T}_{\infty }- {T}_{\mathrm{w}}}}$
为对比均匀和梯度孔隙率多孔结构的相变发汗冷却效果, 在相同主流工况条件下对均匀和梯度多孔试验件开展了亚声速发汗冷却试验。图3展示了4种注入率下高温红外捕获的均匀和梯度鼻锥试验件前端多孔发汗面部分的温度云图。从图3中可看出: a)随着冷却剂质量流量的提高, 多孔表面温度逐渐下降; b)在相同的冷却剂注入率下, 梯度多孔结构的表面温度始终低于均匀多孔结构。选取温度云图中轴线上等距的32个像素点, 通过式(4)计算得到了各点冷却效率$\eta$,结果如图4所示,由于试验件固定的方式为竖直放置,特定$x$坐标构成的竖直线段上温度分布不均匀,因此${T}_{\mathrm{w}}$用线段上的温度平均值表示。从图4中可看出, 在4种冷却剂的注入率下, 梯度多孔结构的表面冷却效率相较于均匀多孔结构均得到了提高, 将32个像素点的冷却效率取平均值, 得到多孔表面的平均冷却效率。在较低的注入率, 即$M ={0.1}\%$时,多孔表面平均冷却效率由均匀孔隙率下的0.218提高到了梯度孔隙率下的0.287 , 提高程度为${31.7}\%$,在较高的注入率,即$M ={0.175}\%$时,多孔表面平均冷却效率由均匀孔隙率下的0.457提高到了梯度孔隙率下的0.499 , 提高程度为9.2%。
此外, 梯度多孔结构不同分层的冷却效率提高程度也不同, 根据图4分析32个像素点的冷却效率分布, 可以发现, 靠近鼻锥前缘的多孔分区冷却效率提升程度更明显,即像素点25~32,这是多孔鼻锥最难冷却的部位, 也是本文研究的重点区域。这是由于梯度多孔前缘更高的孔隙率使得渗透率提高, 从而提高了该处冷却剂流量, 优化了冷却剂分配, 强化了局部换热。图5展示了不同注入率下两种多孔结构驻点处的冷却效率, 结果表明, 在不同的冷却剂注入率下, 梯度多孔结构驻点处的冷却效率得到了显著提高。在均匀多孔结构中,冷却剂注入率$M$由0.100 % 提高到0.175% 时, 驻点冷却效率由0.185提高到了0.362 ,而梯度孔隙率则由0.283提高到了0.412 。综上分析, 梯度孔隙率不仅能提高传热情况最差的驻点处冷却效率, 同时还能提高中下游区域的冷却效率, 这是由于在梯度孔隙率中, 虽然更多冷却剂从前缘区流出, 但其在主流的作用下在多孔表面中下游形成了更厚的热防护气膜。
值得注意的是, 孔隙率的提高会降低多孔换热面积, 不利于流固传热。多孔介质的比表面积直接影响了流固间的对流换热效果,根据Wilson[33]提出的多孔介质比表面积$\alpha$计算方法,$\alpha$由式(7)计算。这种情况下,梯度孔隙率驻点处的冷却效率仍显著高于均匀孔隙率,例如,在注入率$M ={0.175}\%$时,梯度多孔驻点处冷却效率相对均匀孔隙率仍提高了14%,这表明梯度孔隙率的设置能有效优化多孔结构内冷却剂的分布, 使得前缘乃至驻点处的冷却剂流量提高, 抵消了换热面积减小的负面影响,并且强化了传热。
$\alpha = 6\left({1 -\varepsilon }\right)/{d}_{\mathrm{p}}$
图6图7分别展示了试验件整体(多孔发汗面和非渗透壁面)的总体温度云图和冷却效率分布。分析整个试验件表面的温度及冷却效率分布可以发现, 在不同冷却剂注入率下, 梯度多孔试验件表面的温度和冷却效率分布要更均匀, 而温度均匀性也是评估冷却效果的重要参数, 较大的温差会产生较大的热应力, 从而导致材料失效。在整个试验件表面中轴线上等距选取32个像素点, 利用式(8)计算像素点上温度的标准方差$S, S$越大,表面温度分布越不均匀,结果如图7所示。可以发现在不同冷却剂注入率下,梯度多孔结构整体的温度均匀性都要优于均匀孔隙率, 材料承受的热应力更小。
$ S =\sqrt{\frac{\mathop{\sum }\limits_{{i = 1}}^{n}{\left({T}_{i}- \bar{T}\right)}^{2}}{n - 1}}$
试验证明了梯度孔隙率能够有效地优化多孔结构内冷却剂分布, 提高多孔前缘的冷却效率。为进一步分析孔隙率排布对多孔内冷却剂的分布、流动模式、 压力以及主流域气膜覆盖的影响, 本文在耦合高温外流场条件下对多孔鼻锥相变发汗冷却进行了数值分析。
数值分析采用与本文试验件相同的结构参数, 物理模型和两种多孔结构如图8所示。主流雷诺数为${1.1}\times {10}^{4}$,温度为${700}\mathrm{\;K}$。在多孔域入口,边界条件为质量流量入口,冷却剂注入率$M$${0.100}\%\sim {0.150}\%$之间,液体冷却剂(去离子水,初始温度${300}\mathrm{\;K}$)从内壁注入多孔介质, 流入孔隙, 吸收多孔骨架中的热量后相变,生成的水蒸气流出多孔骨架后,在外表面形成一层保护气膜。
本文在多孔介质计算域采用$\mathrm{{Su}}$[34]改进过的局部热非平衡下的两相混合模型(LTNE-TPMM), 守恒方程组如下:
$\text{质量方程:}\nabla \cdot \left({\rho \mathbf{u}}\right)= 0 $
$\text{动量方程:}\rho \mathbf{u}= -\frac{K}{v\left( s\right)}\nabla P $
流体能量方程:$\nabla \cdot \left({\rho \mathbf{u}\cdot {C}_{\mathrm{p}}{T}_{\mathrm{M}}}\right)= \nabla \cdot \left({{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{h}}\nabla {T}_{\mathrm{M}}}\right)+ {q}_{\mathrm{{sf}}}\left({11}\right)$
$\text{固体能量方程:}\nabla \cdot \left({{k}_{\text{f, eff }}\nabla {T}_{\mathrm{s}}}\right)= -{q}_{\text{sf }}$
式中$\mathbf{u}$为速度矢量;${T}_{\mathrm{M}}$为修正温度; 多孔结构中的流体温度${T}_{\mathrm{f}}$可以通过下式求得:
${T}_{\mathrm{M}}= \left\{\begin{array}{ll}{T}_{\mathrm{f}}& {T}_{\mathrm{f}}< {T}_{\text{sat }}\\\left({1 -\lambda }\right)\frac{{h}_{\mathrm{{fg}}}}{{c}_{\mathrm{p},1}}+ {T}_{\text{sat }}& {T}_{\mathrm{f}}= {T}_{\text{sat }}\\{T}_{\text{sat }}+ \frac{{h}_{\mathrm{{fg}}}}{{c}_{\mathrm{p},1}}+ \frac{{c}_{\mathrm{p},\mathrm{v}}}{{c}_{\mathrm{p},\mathrm{l}}}\left({{T}_{\mathrm{f}}- {T}_{\text{sat }}}\right)& {T}_{\mathrm{f}}> {T}_{\text{sat }}\end{array}\right.$
式(9)~(12)所用到的本构关系见表2,其详细展示了控制方程中各项参数的计算, 如能量方程中${q}_{\mathrm{{sf}}}$${K}_{\mathrm{f},\mathrm{{eff}}}$等参数的计算。冷却工质(水和水蒸气)的物性详见文献[35]。
基于稳态假设, 主流域的方程组如下:
质量方程:$\nabla \cdot \left({\rho \mathbf{u}}\right)= 0$
$\text{动量方程:}\nabla \cdot \left({\rho \mathbf{u}\mathbf{u}}\right)= -\nabla p +\nabla \cdot \tau $
能量方程:$\nabla \cdot \left({\rho uH}\right)= \Phi +\nabla \cdot \left({k\nabla T}\right)$
主流域采用$\operatorname{SST}k -\omega$湍流模型[33],微分方程利用二阶逆风格式进行离散化, 采用基于密度的耦合隐式方法进行计算。
图9展示了数值方法的边界条件和计算流程, 主流域入口为速度入口, 出口为压力出口。多孔域入口为质量流量入口,冷却剂注入率$M$${0.100}\%\sim {0.150}\%$之间,冷却剂初始温度为${300}\mathrm{\;K}$。由于自身导热及与多孔结构内壁之间的对流换热, 冷却剂在流入多孔结构前已被加热,因此在多孔域入口处采用${300}\mathrm{\;K}$的冷却剂定温边界条件是不合理的, 会对发汗冷却效果过高估计。本文综合考虑了冷却剂进入多孔结构前的预热过程, 采用如下边界条件:
$\left\{{\begin{array}{l}{m}_{\mathrm{c}}\cdot \left\lbrack {{H}_{\mathrm{c}}\left({T}_{\mathrm{f},\mathrm{c}}\right)- {H}_{\mathrm{c}}\left({T}_{\text{init }}\right)}\right\rbrack ={h}_{\mathrm{c}}\left({{T}_{\mathrm{s}}- {T}_{\mathrm{f},\mathrm{c}}}\right)- \mathbf{n}\cdot \left({{k}_{\mathrm{f},\mathrm{{eff}}}\nabla {T}_{\mathrm{f}}}\right)\\\mathbf{n}\cdot \left({{k}_{\mathrm{f},\mathrm{{eff}}}\nabla {T}_{\mathrm{s}}}\right)= -{h}_{\mathrm{c}}\left({{T}_{\mathrm{s}}- {T}_{\mathrm{f},\mathrm{c}}}\right)\end{array}({17}}\right.$
式中$\mathbf{n}$为向外单位法向量;${H}_{\mathrm{c}},{k}_{\mathrm{f},\mathrm{{eff}}}$${T}_{\mathrm{f},\mathrm{c}}$分别为冷却剂焓、有效导热系数和温度;${h}_{\mathrm{c}},{k}_{\mathrm{s},\mathrm{{eff}}}$${T}_{\mathrm{s}}$分别为多孔骨架冷侧对流换热系数、有效导热系数和温度。其中,多孔结构冷侧对流换热系数${h}_{\mathrm{c}}$的计算方法如下:
${h}_{\mathrm{c}}= {0.664P}{r}^{1/3}R{e}^{1/2}$
式中的普朗特数${Pr}$和雷诺数${Re}$采用Liu${}^{\text{等 }}$给出的经验数值。
本文采用多区域耦合数值策略, 利用边界条件的传递对主流域和多孔域进行耦合, 采用Ansys Fluent进行整体数值模拟,式(9)$\sim$(12)中的源项、变量和参数计算, 梯度孔隙率的设置, 均通过嵌入UDF (用户定义函数)来实现。
使用ICEM CFD生成网格, 采用3套网格策略进行网格无关性验证。网格1的主流域网格数为238402, 多孔域网格数为183203, 网格2的主流域网格数为306542, 多孔域网格数为242952, 网格3的主流域网格数为421457,多孔域网格数为330 292。经过多区域耦合数值模拟后, 得到的多孔介质热侧温度分布如图10所示。其中网格2和网格3计算温度的最大误差约为1.5%,从计算结果的准确性和节约成本的角度出发,本文选用网格2进行后续计算。
为验证本文的数学模型和数值策略, 用本文的试验数据与数值模拟结果进行对照, 采用与试验相同的工况,即主流雷诺数为${1.1}\times {10}^{4}$,温度为${700}\mathrm{\;K}$,冷却剂注入率$M$${0.125}\%$。多孔结构热侧温度的数值模拟结果和试验数据对比如图11所示, 两者的最大误差在15%以内, 吻合较好。因此可以认为本文数学模型和所采用的数值方法是有效的。
图12展示了不同冷却剂质量流量下,均匀和梯度多孔骨架温度分布, 可以发现: a)随着冷却剂流量提高,多孔骨架的温度逐渐降低;b)相同冷却剂质量流量下,梯度多孔结构前缘的温度要明显低于均匀多孔结构。在驻点所处的$\mathrm{A}$区,温度大幅降低,当冷却剂注入率$M ={0.100}\%$时,驻点温度由均匀多孔结构下的${602}\mathrm{\;K}$降低至梯度多孔结构下的${576}\mathrm{\;K}$,降幅为${26}\mathrm{\;K}$。这表明梯度孔隙率能有效降低驻点温度。
图13a展示了多孔结构内冷却剂入口的注入压力分布。可以看出, 在均匀多孔结构内, 驻点处的压力最大, 这是由于驻点处热流值最大, 因此冷却剂在此处相变是最剧烈的, 吸热后产生大量水蒸气。而水蒸气的密度远小于液态水, 且运动黏度是液态水的50倍以上, 因此导致驻点处的流动阻力迅速提高, 产生了 “蒸汽阻塞” 现象[36],使此处产生了局部高压,使得冷却剂绕过蒸汽区, 从压力相对较低的下游流出多孔结构, 恶化了驻点区的冷却效果。而在梯度多孔结构中,压力最大值从驻点处$\left({x =- {0.002}\mathrm{\;m}}\right)$后移,这是由于越靠近前缘, 孔隙率越大, 从而提高了渗透率, 降低了流动阻力,极大削弱了 “蒸汽阻塞” 的负面影响, 因此更多的冷却剂趋于从驻点处渗出多孔结构, 强化了局部换热。图13b则展示了多孔结构出口的冷却剂质量流量分布, 可以发现, 在均匀多孔结构中, 由于入口边界上前缘压力大于下游, 大量冷却剂倾向于从下游流出多孔结构,因此出口边界冷却剂呈前低后高的趋势, 前缘分配到的冷却剂较少, 且提高注入率也无法改变这一现象。而在梯度多孔结构中, 冷却剂呈明显的阶梯状分布, 由于前缘注入压小于下游区域,冷却剂流量得到显著提高,尤其在$\mathrm{A}$层和$\mathrm{B}$$\left({x =- {0.005}\sim -{0.002}\mathrm{\;m}}\right)$。当冷却剂注入率$M ={0.100}\%$时, 驻点处的冷却剂质量流量由均匀多孔结构下的${0.024}\mathrm{\;{kg}}/\left({{\mathrm{m}}^{2}\cdot \mathrm{s}}\right)$提高到了${0.044}\mathrm{\;{kg}}/\left({{\mathrm{m}}^{2}\cdot \mathrm{s}}\right)$,提高幅度为76%。此外, 不同孔隙率分层的交界处, 冷却剂流量存在一个大幅降低的突变现象, 这是由于在交界面处孔隙率不是连续变化, 而是突然变化的, 比如在$x =- {0.004}\mathrm{\;m}$处第1层孔隙率从0.5直接变为第2层的0.4, 这导致两层交界面的渗透率也发生突变, 从第1层到第2层渗透率瞬间大幅降低, 从而进一步导致流动阻力大幅提高,因此交界面处冷却剂流量大幅降低。
图14为注入率$M ={0.125}\%$时多孔结构内部的流场。在均匀多孔结构中, 冷却剂的流动方向几乎为入口边界的法向, 且由于驻点处存在最大压力, 驻点处流速最低, 在下游部分流速提高。而在梯度孔隙率中, 值得注意的是, 由于高压区从驻点向下游移动, 冷却剂出现了明显的向前缘流动的趋势,并且$\mathrm{A}\text{、}\mathrm{\;B}$$\mathrm{C}$层的流速显著提高,强化了流固间的传热,提高了前缘及驻点处的冷却效率。
图15展示了不同注入率下两种多孔结构内的冷却剂液相饱和度分布。由图15可以发现, 随着注入率提高, 在均匀多孔结构内, 由于驻点处极大的流动阻力,此处冷却剂液相区几乎没有发生变化,而下游液相区占比明显增加。相比之下,在梯度多孔结构内, 随着注入率的增加, 驻点处冷却剂液相区明显增多,有效提高了此处的换热能力。
液态水冷却剂在多孔骨架内换热后流出, 并在主流的作用下在多孔外表面形成一层贴壁的气膜, 气膜的厚度直接影响了对外表面的热防护效果, 因此研究冷却剂在多孔表面附近的分布是至关重要的。图16展示了主流域多孔以及非渗透壁面上的冷却剂分布情况。结合图15,可以发现冷却剂均以水蒸气的形式流出多孔结构。随着冷却剂质量流量的提高, 两种多孔结构下,表面气膜的厚度均不断增加。值得注意的是, 在均匀多孔结构中, 外表面的气膜分布极不均匀,在前缘部分$\left({x =- {0.005}\sim 0\mathrm{\;m}}\right)$气膜厚度较小,在下游部分则明显增厚, 造成这一现象的原因是前缘内部的蒸汽阻塞迫使大量冷却剂从下游流出, 导致前缘外表面的气膜覆盖极其稀薄。而在梯度多孔结构中, 该情况得到了一定程度的改善,在$x =- {0.005}\sim 0\mathrm{\;m}$范围内, 气膜厚度增加, 并向下游延伸, 整体气膜覆盖更均匀。
为定量分析孔隙率分布对多孔前缘部分气膜覆盖效果的影响,本文定义了无量纲数$a$,其表示梯度和多孔结构表面第1层边界层内冷却剂质量分数之比, 由式(19)计算得出。
$ a =\frac{{F}_{\mathrm{{gp}}}}{{F}_{\mathrm{{up}}}}$
式中${F}_{\mathrm{{gp}}}$${F}_{\mathrm{{up}}}$分别为梯度和均匀多孔结构下,前缘壁面第1层边界层上冷却剂质量分数。如图17所示, 冷却剂质量流量越高, 梯度/均匀多孔结构外表面冷却剂含量之比越大,尤其是在驻点处$\left({x =- {0.005}\mathrm{\;m}}\right)$, 当冷却剂注入率从$M ={0.100}\%$提高到$M ={0.150}\%$时,$a$由2.4提高到了3.4 ,这表明冷却剂质量流量越大,梯度孔隙率带来的气膜覆盖效果提升越明显。其次, 越靠近驻点, 梯度/均匀多孔结构外表面冷却剂含量之比越大,以$M ={0.150}\%$为例,$a$$x = 0\mathrm{\;m}$处的1.5提高到了$x =- {0.005}\mathrm{\;m}$处的3.4,这表明越靠近驻点区域,梯度孔隙率带来的气膜覆盖效果提升越明显。
为提高发汗冷却驻点冷却效率, 优化冷却剂在多孔结构内的分布, 本文对一种基于梯度孔隙率的楔形鼻锥多孔结构的相变发汗冷却进行了亚声速试验和数值研究, 得到以下结论:
a)试验结果表明,梯度孔隙率通过提高前缘渗透率, 优化多孔结构内部冷却剂的分布, 不仅能提高传热情况最差的驻点处冷却效率,同时从前缘流出的更多冷却剂在下游表面形成的热防护气膜还能提高中下游区域的冷却效果, 使得多孔表面整体冷却效率显著提高。以冷却剂注入率$M ={0.125}\%$为例,驻点处冷却效率提高了52.4%,整体冷却效率则提高了31.7%。
b)数值计算表明,梯度多孔结构能显著降低多孔结构前缘的表面温度, 提高冷却效率。在冷却剂注入率$M ={0.100}\%$时,驻点温度由均匀孔隙率下的${602}\mathrm{\;K}$降低至梯度孔隙率下的${576}\mathrm{\;K}$,降幅为${26}\mathrm{\;K}$
c)梯度孔隙率的设计使得原本存在于驻点处的最大压力后移, 削弱了 “蒸汽阻塞” 影响, 前缘处冷却剂流量大幅提高。冷却剂注入率$M ={0.150}\%$时,驻点处冷却剂流量提高了76%。此外, 梯度孔隙率下多孔结构内前缘处冷却剂流速提高, 强化了流固间的传热。
d)梯度孔隙率的设计使多孔结构外表面的冷却剂气膜分布更均匀,前缘部分的气膜厚度明显增加。 当冷却剂注入率$M ={0.100}\%$时,驻点处第1层边界层水蒸气含量提高了1.4倍。随着冷却剂质量流量的提高, 梯度孔隙率带来的前缘气膜覆盖效果提升越明显。此外, 越靠近驻点, 气膜覆盖效果提升越明显。
  • 安徽省杰青(2308085J21)
  • 国家自然科学基金(52376154)
  • 国家自然科学基金(U22B20135)
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doi: 10.7654/j.issn.2097-1974.20240512
  • 接收时间:2024-02-22
  • 首发时间:2025-07-04
  • 出版时间:2024-10-25
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  • 收稿日期:2024-02-22
  • 修回日期:2024-04-24
基金
安徽省杰青(2308085J21)
国家自然科学基金(52376154)
国家自然科学基金(U22B20135)
作者信息
    1 中国科学技术大学,合肥,230026
    2 上海机电工程研究所,上海,201109
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