Article(id=1243879752654766718, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1240685776644648972, issueId=1243879752042398333, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.3969/j.issn.1007-7294.2024.08.007, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1708272000000, receivedDateStr=2024-02-19, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1774493643200, onlineDateStr=2026-03-26, pubDate=1724083200000, pubDateStr=2024-08-20, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1774493643200, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-03-26, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1774493643200, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1774493643200, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1243879752042398333, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1240685776644648972, year='2024', volume='28', issue='8', pageStart='1133', pageEnd='1296', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1774493643055, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1774493947997, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1243881031133147325, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1240685776644648972, issueId=1243879752042398333, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1243881031133147326, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1240685776644648972, issueId=1243879752042398333, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=1200, endPage=1208, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1243879753107751552, articleId=1243879752654766718, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1240685776644648972, language=EN, title=Experimental investigation on flexure strength of model ice with circular plate center loading tests, columnId=1241023037940748650, journalTitle=Journal of Ship Mechanics, columnName=Hydrodynamics, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The failure of ice sheets caused by various forces applied vertically is an important scenario in the polar exploration and utilization engineering. The characteristics of ice strength has a direct impact on the design and evaluation of the structural strength and safety manipulation of platform structures active in this area. In this paper, relying on the Small Ice Model Basin of China Ship Scientific Research Center (CSSRC SIMB), the columnar saline model ice was made to carry out circular plate center loading tests. During the test, the center of the ice specimen on the evenly-distributed circumferential support was loaded vertically, the force curve of the ice specimen from the initial loading to the flexural failure was recorded by a force measurement system, and the flexure strength was obtained according to the peak force. At the same time, the failure details of the ice specimen were documented by a high-speed video camera, and then the process and mode of ice destruction were analyzed. On this basis, a series of experimental tests were carried out to analyze the influence on the flexural strength of the model ice by varying the loading speed and the ice temperature. The work of this paper provides a feasible method for measuring and analyzing the strength characteristics of the model ice for CSSRC SIMB and establishes a preliminary foundation for the further research of the mechanism of ice loading under the vertical interaction between the structure and the ice sheet.

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由各种垂直施力引起的冰层破坏是极地探索和利用活动中重要的工程场景,而冰强度特性对于活动于此区域的平台的结构强度和安全操控的设计评估有直接影响。本文依托中国船舶科学研究中心小型冰水池,制作盐水柱状模型冰,开展模型冰水平圆盘中心加载试验。试验对环向外沿均布支撑下的水平圆盘冰样中心区域垂直加载,利用测力系统记录冰样从起始承载直至弯曲破坏的力值曲线,根据受力峰值求取冰样破坏时的弯曲强度,利用影像系统捕捉冰样破坏失效细节,分析冰样承载失效过程。在此基础上,改变加载速度和冰样温度,开展系列试验测量,分析两个因素对模型冰弯曲强度的影响。本文工作为测量分析模型冰强度特性补充了一种可行手段,也为深入研究冰区结构物与冰层垂直作用机理和冰载荷形成机制建立了初步基础。

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通讯作者,E-mail:
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赵伟航(1998-),男,硕士研究生

田于逵(1968-),男,研究员,通讯作者,E-mail:

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赵伟航(1998-),男,硕士研究生

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赵伟航(1998-),男,硕士研究生

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Summary of disc specimen size and testing conditions

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次序圆盘直径/厚度/mm试样个数(个)加载速度/(mm·min-1冰温/(℃)小冷间温度/(℃)测量参数
1140/2020100,150,200,
250,300
-0.8-0.8峰值力
失效时间
215-2.0-2.0
315-4.0-4.0
415-6.0-6.0
515-8.0-8.0
), ArticleFig(id=1243879765367702525, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1240685776644648972, articleId=1243879752654766718, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

圆盘试样设计尺寸及试验设计条件一览表

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次序圆盘直径/厚度/mm试样个数(个)加载速度/(mm·min-1冰温/(℃)小冷间温度/(℃)测量参数
1140/2020100,150,200,
250,300
-0.8-0.8峰值力
失效时间
215-2.0-2.0
315-4.0-4.0
415-6.0-6.0
515-8.0-8.0
), ArticleFig(id=1243879765447393282, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1240685776644648972, articleId=1243879752654766718, language=EN, label=Tab.2, caption=

Parameters of test instruments

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仪器名称量程/精度
温度计分辨率0.01 ℃
电子万能试验机加载速度0.01-500 mm/min,加载力为0~30 kN
高速摄像机采样率2800帧/秒
拉压力传感器2000 N
游标卡尺精度0.01 mm
冰密度测量仪器精度0.1 g/cm3
盐度计精度±3%(FS)
), ArticleFig(id=1243879765535473673, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1240685776644648972, articleId=1243879752654766718, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

试验仪器参数

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
仪器名称量程/精度
温度计分辨率0.01 ℃
电子万能试验机加载速度0.01-500 mm/min,加载力为0~30 kN
高速摄像机采样率2800帧/秒
拉压力传感器2000 N
游标卡尺精度0.01 mm
冰密度测量仪器精度0.1 g/cm3
盐度计精度±3%(FS)
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模型冰水平圆盘中心加载弯曲强度试验研究
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赵伟航 1 , 余朝歌 1 , 田于逵 1 , 刚旭皓 1 , 卢鹏 2
船舶力学 | 流体力学 2024,28(8): 1200-1208
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船舶力学 | 流体力学 2024, 28(8): 1200-1208
模型冰水平圆盘中心加载弯曲强度试验研究
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赵伟航1, 余朝歌1, 田于逵1 , 刚旭皓1, 卢鹏2
作者信息
  • 1.中国船舶科学研究中心,江苏 无锡 214082
  • 2.大连理工大学,辽宁 大连 116024
  • 赵伟航(1998-),男,硕士研究生

    田于逵(1968-),男,研究员,通讯作者,E-mail:

通讯作者:

通讯作者,E-mail:
Experimental investigation on flexure strength of model ice with circular plate center loading tests
Wei-hang ZHAO1, Chao-ge YU1, Yu-kui TIAN1 , Xu-hao GANG1, Peng LU2
Affiliations
  • 1.China Ship Scientific Research Center, Wuxi 214082, China
  • 2.Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
出版时间: 2024-08-20 doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1007-7294.2024.08.007
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由各种垂直施力引起的冰层破坏是极地探索和利用活动中重要的工程场景,而冰强度特性对于活动于此区域的平台的结构强度和安全操控的设计评估有直接影响。本文依托中国船舶科学研究中心小型冰水池,制作盐水柱状模型冰,开展模型冰水平圆盘中心加载试验。试验对环向外沿均布支撑下的水平圆盘冰样中心区域垂直加载,利用测力系统记录冰样从起始承载直至弯曲破坏的力值曲线,根据受力峰值求取冰样破坏时的弯曲强度,利用影像系统捕捉冰样破坏失效细节,分析冰样承载失效过程。在此基础上,改变加载速度和冰样温度,开展系列试验测量,分析两个因素对模型冰弯曲强度的影响。本文工作为测量分析模型冰强度特性补充了一种可行手段,也为深入研究冰区结构物与冰层垂直作用机理和冰载荷形成机制建立了初步基础。

冰水池  /  盐水柱状模型冰  /  水平圆盘  /  中心加载  /  弯曲强度

The failure of ice sheets caused by various forces applied vertically is an important scenario in the polar exploration and utilization engineering. The characteristics of ice strength has a direct impact on the design and evaluation of the structural strength and safety manipulation of platform structures active in this area. In this paper, relying on the Small Ice Model Basin of China Ship Scientific Research Center (CSSRC SIMB), the columnar saline model ice was made to carry out circular plate center loading tests. During the test, the center of the ice specimen on the evenly-distributed circumferential support was loaded vertically, the force curve of the ice specimen from the initial loading to the flexural failure was recorded by a force measurement system, and the flexure strength was obtained according to the peak force. At the same time, the failure details of the ice specimen were documented by a high-speed video camera, and then the process and mode of ice destruction were analyzed. On this basis, a series of experimental tests were carried out to analyze the influence on the flexural strength of the model ice by varying the loading speed and the ice temperature. The work of this paper provides a feasible method for measuring and analyzing the strength characteristics of the model ice for CSSRC SIMB and establishes a preliminary foundation for the further research of the mechanism of ice loading under the vertical interaction between the structure and the ice sheet.

ice model basin  /  columnar saline model ice  /  circular plate  /  center loading  /  flexure strength
赵伟航, 余朝歌, 田于逵, 刚旭皓, 卢鹏. 模型冰水平圆盘中心加载弯曲强度试验研究. 船舶力学, 2024 , 28 (8) : 1200 -1208 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1007-7294.2024.08.007
Wei-hang ZHAO, Chao-ge YU, Yu-kui TIAN, Xu-hao GANG, Peng LU. Experimental investigation on flexure strength of model ice with circular plate center loading tests[J]. Journal of Ship Mechanics, 2024 , 28 (8) : 1200 -1208 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1007-7294.2024.08.007
冰区结构物如水下浮体在航行与作业时不可避免地会与海冰发生相互作用,其相互作用机理是冰工程研究领域重点关注的问题。冰载荷是海冰对结构物的作用,影响冰载荷的主要因素包括冰的性质和类型、结构的类型和形状[1]、以及冰对结构作用时的破坏形式[2],其中冰的性质和类型是主要影响因素。当结构与海冰垂直作用时,冰层会出现剪切、弯曲等失效模式,其中弯曲破坏为主要的破坏形式[3],因此对冰的弯曲强度进行测量研究对结构冰载荷预报具有重要意义,可为冰区结构物的结构加强设计和安全评估提供关键输入。
在近半个世纪的研究过程中,学者们发展了原位悬臂梁试验、简支梁试验以及水平圆盘中心加载试验等各种冰弯曲强度测量方法。其中,原位悬臂梁试验直接将冰梁从层冰中切出,试验过程中冰样始终处在原来的环境中,考虑了水浮力的影响。Frederking等[4]在加拿大国家研究委员会(NRC)水力学试验室通过原位悬臂梁试验测得了模型冰的弯曲强度,发现其与加载速率无明显的相关性;Krupina等[5]针对巴伦支海的东南部和东北部地区的海冰进行了原位悬臂梁试验,得到了该地区海冰弯曲强度的分布;中国船舶科学研究中心刚旭皓等[6]针对模型冰弯曲强度开展了原位悬臂梁试验,试验表明加载速率变化时模型冰的弯曲强度趋于恒定值,冰样的弯曲强度随着回温时间的增加而逐渐减小。而简支梁试验主要分为三点弯曲试验和四点弯曲试验,可在室外冰区现场或者室内进行,适用于冰脊或冰山冰的测量。季顺迎等[7]对渤海海冰的弯曲强度进行了室内三点弯曲试验,发现渤海海冰弯曲强度与加载速率呈线性关系;Gagnon等[8]对冰山冰进行四点弯曲试验,发现冰的弯曲强度随冰温升高而降低;Barrette等[9]也对冰山冰进行了四点弯曲试验,发现冰内部的平均晶粒尺寸越大,其弯曲强度越小。至于海冰的水平圆盘中心加载试验则是从冰层中切割出冰柱,再将冰柱按照确定的厚径比切割成圆盘形状以测量弯曲强度,能够方便观察冰的力学特性沿冰层厚度的变化。Marchenko等[10]针对巴伦支海的西北部海冰进行了水平圆盘中心加载试验,观察到弯曲强度对温度的依赖性,温度降低,弯曲强度增大。综上所述,冰是一种复杂的晶体材料,冰晶的结构、冰温以及外部加载条件等因素影响其弯曲强度[11]测量。
相比于原位悬臂梁试验和简支梁试验技术,通过水平圆盘中心加载试验测量模型冰弯曲强度的案例很少,国际拖曳水池会议(ITTC,International Towing Tank Conference)发布的模型冰力学特性测试方法也缺乏水平圆盘中心加载试验的相关规范,这表明模型冰的水平圆盘中心加载试验还需要进一步的开拓完善。冰的弯曲强度受多种因素影响,其中冰温与冰弯曲强度之间存在明显的相关性,在模型冰的制备过程中,改变模型冰温度是调节模型冰强度的重要手段,冰温对模型冰弯曲强度的影响需要深入地开展试验测量进行定量分析;此外,作为结构-冰作用过程中的关键变化量,加载速率对海冰弯曲强度的影响不容忽视,需要进一步进行试验探究。
因此,为完善模型冰的水平圆盘中心加载试验技术,使其成为测量分析模型冰弯曲强度的一种可行手段,本文依托中国船舶科学研究中心小型冰水池,针对盐水柱状模型冰开展相关试验研究,分析模型冰弯曲失效过程,探究加载速度及冰温对模型冰弯曲强度的影响。
中国船舶科学研究中心的小型冰水池长8 m、宽2 m、深1 m[12],内部场景如图1所示。小型冰水池的模型冰制冰工艺由氯化钠溶液通过自然冷冻制成;制备过程分为预冷、引晶、制冰等阶段,通过将盐水混合物降温至冰点附近进行引晶,在水体表面形成一层极薄的细小颗粒冰晶层,进而在其下方引起以柱状结构为主的冰生长,达到目标厚度,其力学特性可以通过回温手段加以调节。
模型冰晶体结构如图2(a)所示,冰层上表面至冰层下表面分为3层结构:粒状层、过渡层和柱状层。表层厚度7~9 mm的区域为粒状冰和混合过渡层,剩下的约30 mm厚度为柱状冰。图2(b)中Sta1、Sta2、Sta5、Sta6代表北极一年冰,Sta3代表两年冰,Sta4代表多年冰。其中一年冰的最上层为粒状冰,最下层为柱状冰,颗粒冰和柱状冰中间夹杂有过渡层[13],对比可知,模型冰的晶体结构与北极一年冰的晶体结构相似。
水平圆盘中心加载试验是对环向外沿均布支撑下的水平圆盘冰样中心位置的圆形区域进行垂直加载,试验原理图及测试图如图3所示。
当圆盘足够薄时,圆盘模型属于典型板壳结构,根据板壳力学理论[14],在半径为R的圆盘上,当载荷q在半径为r的圆内均匀分布时,圆盘的最大弯矩在圆盘的中心位置。如图3(d)所示,通过对r内半径为b,宽度为db的环形面上的载荷所产生的挠度进行积分,可以求得圆盘中心的挠度,进而计算出圆盘中心位置的弯矩Mmax
式中,F代表总载荷πr2qν为泊松比,冰的泊松比取决于温度和应变率,代表值为0.33[15],公式(1)中的ν亦选用0.33。
弯矩与应力的关系式为
式中,h为圆盘厚度。
圆盘中最大拉应力即弯曲强度σf
由纯弯曲假设所得到的弯矩与曲率的关系式是上述推导过程的基础,因此与圆盘表面平行的平面上的剪力对于弯曲强度的影响,没有考虑在内。目前得到的σf只是近似解,其精确程度取决于圆盘的厚度与外径之比。俄罗斯学者[5]认为厚径比小于0.15时,剪力对弯曲强度的影响可忽略不计。
试验测试在紧邻冰水池的小冷间进行。本文选取加载速度和冰温作为试验控制的因素,试验的响应为峰值力和失效时间,加载速度和冰温的水平如表1所示。新制成的模型冰的平均温度在−0.8℃左右,密度为0.91 g/cm3,盐度为2.75 ppt(即2.75‰)。
试验分为三个阶段,包括试验准备阶段、圆盘取样及存储冻结阶段和试验测量及数据记录阶段。试验准备阶段,首先对小冷间进行降温,使其达到目标温度,将高速摄像机、电子万能试验机、温度计等相关仪器进行预冷。试验整体布置方案如图4所示,试验仪器参数见表2
圆盘取样及存储冻结阶段,根据研究工况,通过钻孔器在平整冰面钻取了80块圆盘试样,圆盘冰样直径为140 mm,厚度为20 mm。由1.2节可知,圆盘的厚径比小于0.15时,满足计算要求,典型圆盘试样如图5所示。取样结束后将20块新制成的模型冰冰样放置于小冷间开展试验测量,将剩余60块模型冰圆盘试样放置于可控温冰箱存储冻结供后续试验测量。
在试验测量阶段,按照试验工况要求调节电子万能试验机加载速度,记录冰样从起始承载直至弯曲破坏的力值曲线,同时利用高速摄像机捕捉冰样破坏失效细节。模型冰失效后迅速测量并记录其厚度与温度,尽可能防止冰温出现较大变化。
水平圆盘中心加载试验中,加载力P的典型时历曲线如图6所示。当加载力达到最大值Pmax时,冰样发生弯曲破坏,根据公式(3)可由Pmax计算得到模型冰的弯曲强度σ
图6为冰温为-8.8 ℃的模型冰的加载力时历曲线图,为了进一步研究分析模型冰的破坏过程,采用高速摄像机,观察图6中A、B、C、D四个时刻模型冰的状态,对模型冰的弯曲破坏过程进行了捕捉,如图7所示。根据高速摄像机的观测结果可以得出,模型冰沿直径断裂,裂纹扩展迅速,扩展时间约在0.02 s内。根据时历曲线及高速摄像观测结果,发现模型冰没有明显的屈服阶段,且失效位置无明显的塑性变形,因此可以认为模型冰的失效属于脆性破坏。
本节通过两组试验数据(-0.8 ℃和-4 ℃)对加载速度与弯曲强度之间的关系进行了研究,加载速度分别为100 mm/min、150 mm/min、200 mm/min、250 mm/min、300 mm/min。统计传感器数据发现,模型冰弯曲失效时压头下降的位移在0.4~1.3 mm的区间内,如图8所示。
图9显示了不同加载速度下模型冰的典型时-力曲线。可以看出,不同加载速度下,模型冰失效时的加载力变化不大;当加载力增长到峰值点后,时-力曲线迅速下降,且下降趋势基本一致,进一步表明模型冰的失效属于脆性失效。
基于试验数据,使用Pearson相关系数和Spearman相关系数分析加载速度与弯曲强度之间的相关性。其中,Pearson相关系数可以反映两个随机变量之间的线性相关程度,Spearman相关系数可以衡量变量之间的单调性强弱。通过计算发现,模型冰的弯曲强度和加载速度之间的Pearson相关系数为-0.29和0.33,P值均大于0.05,说明加载速度与模型冰弯曲强度之间不存在显著的线性相关关系;弯曲强度和加载速度之间的Spearman相关系数为-0.31和0.37,P值均大于0.05,说明加载速度与模型冰弯曲强度之间不存在显著的单调相关关系,如图10所示。综合两种相关性检验结果,可以判断模型冰弯曲强度与加载速度之间不存在相关性。
有关冰温对冰弯曲强度影响的研究主要集中在海冰的研究上。Marchenko等[10]针对巴伦支海的西北部海冰进行了弯曲强度试验,得到的弯曲强度随温度与盐度的关系式如下:
式中,σf为海冰弯曲强度,单位为MPa;S为海冰盐度;T为海冰温度。丁德文[16]对渤海海冰的弯曲强度进行测量,试验数据表明抗弯强度随冰温的降低而增大,且二者呈线性关系。目前海冰弯曲强度的经验公式较多,且现有的海冰弯曲强度经验公式中冰温与弯曲强度近似呈线性关系。模型冰弯曲强度的经验公式较少,因此本节针对模型冰弯曲强度与模型冰冰温之间的关系进行定量分析。模型冰冰温区间为-0.8 ℃至-9 ℃,由2.1节可知加载速度可视为无关变量,由于本文的模型冰是一次制冰的结果,所以默认模型冰盐度是统一值(2.75 ppt),未给出盐度的影响系数。
统计试验数据,得到冰温与弯曲强度的Pearson相关系数为-0.89,P值为3.15×10-24;Spearman相关系数为-0.78,P值为7.1×10-13。为了确定二者之间的定量关系,对试验数据进行拟合,拟合结果如图11所示,回归方程如下:
式中,σf为模型冰弯曲强度,单位为kPa;T是模型冰温度。由图11可以分析得出,在-0.8 ℃至-9 ℃温度区间,随着模型冰冰温的降低,模型冰弯曲强度呈现增长的趋势,二者之间存在明显的线性相关关系,此结果与其他学者的海冰弯曲强度试验测量结果相符合。
本文通过水平圆盘中心加载试验针对盐水柱状模型冰的弯曲强度进行了一系列测试,得到了加载力的典型时程曲线,同时利用高速摄像机捕捉了冰样破坏失效细节,分析了加载速度和模型冰冰温这两个因素对模型冰弯曲强度的影响。主要结论如下:
(1)根据冰样从起始承载直至弯曲破坏的时历曲线,发现冰样没有明显的屈服阶段,利用高速摄像机观察冰样失效过程,发现失效位置无明显的塑性变形,因而判断模型冰的失效过程为典型的脆性破坏。
(2)结合板壳力学对圆盘试样进行了受力分析,推导出圆盘内应力最大值的表达式,易知该应力位于圆盘下表面。基于受力分析计算得到模型冰的弯曲强度,统计显示,当冰温在-2 ℃至-9 ℃时,模型冰弯曲强度在899~1943 kPa区间。
(3)加载速度与模型冰弯曲强度之间不存在显著的相关关系,加载速度变化时,模型冰的弯曲强度未发生较大改变。模型冰温度对弯曲强度的影响较大,二者存在显著的线性负相关关系,在-0.8 ℃至-9 ℃区间,随着模型冰冰温的不断降低,模型冰的弯曲强度不断提高。
本文为测量分析模型冰弯曲强度补充了一种可行手段,也为深入研究冰区结构物与冰层垂直作用机理和冰载荷形成机制建立了初步基础。后续将进一步丰富和比较水平圆盘中心加载试验与原位悬臂梁试验和简支梁试验等不同手段得到的结果,以建立系统的模型冰弯曲强度测量分析技术。
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(52192690; 52192692; 52192694)
  • 高技术船舶科研项目([2021]342号)
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doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1007-7294.2024.08.007
  • 接收时间:2024-02-19
  • 首发时间:2026-03-26
  • 出版时间:2024-08-20
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  • 收稿日期:2024-02-19
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国家自然科学基金资助项目(52192690; 52192692; 52192694)
高技术船舶科研项目([2021]342号)
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    1.中国船舶科学研究中心,江苏 无锡 214082
    2.大连理工大学,辽宁 大连 116024

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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