Article(id=1243301633170452944, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1240685776644648972, issueId=1243301630683234768, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.3969/j.issn.1007-7294.2025.01.015, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1721145600000, receivedDateStr=2024-07-17, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1774355808774, onlineDateStr=2026-03-24, pubDate=1737302400000, pubDateStr=2025-01-20, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1774355808774, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-03-24, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1774355808774, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1774355808774, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1243301630683234768, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1240685776644648972, year='2025', volume='29', issue='1', pageStart='1', pageEnd='169', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=0, createTime=1774355808181, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1774355986739, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1243302379672678863, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1240685776644648972, issueId=1243301630683234768, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1243302379672678864, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1240685776644648972, issueId=1243301630683234768, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=156, endPage=169, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1243301635389239777, articleId=1243301633170452944, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1240685776644648972, language=EN, title=Mathematical and physical description of cavitation flows and cavitation models, columnId=1242150510002775025, journalTitle=Journal of Ship Mechanics, columnName=Comprehensive Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Cavitation is a widely-existing fluid dynamics phenomenon in nature, and its theoretical modeling and numerical simulation methods have long formed an important direction in the field of fluid mechanics. In this paper, the essence of phase transition in cavitation, the mathematical and physical description of cavitation flows, especially the main research results of cavitation models for numerical simulation of cavitation flows are reviewed, providing support for the study of cavitation flow.

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空化流动是自然界中广泛存在的一种流体力学现象,它的理论建模和数值模拟方法研究长期以来形成了流体力学领域的重要方向。本文对空化的相变本质进行了阐述,系统地介绍了空化流动的数学物理描述,回顾了空化流动数值模拟的空化模型国内外研究进展,并详细地推演了以输运方程为基础的蒸发冷凝空化模型和泡动力学空化模型,可为空化流动的研究提供借鉴。

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通讯作者,E-mail:
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洪方文(1971-),男,研究员,通讯作者,E-mail:

袁国辉(2000-),男,硕士研究生

翟树成(1986-),男,研究员

郑巢生(1987-),男,研究员

刘登成(1982-),男,研究员。

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空化流动的数学物理描述及空化模型研究进展
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洪方文 , 袁国辉 , 翟树成 , 郑巢生 , 刘登成
船舶力学 | 研究综述 2025,29(1): 156-169
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船舶力学 | 研究综述 2025, 29(1): 156-169
空化流动的数学物理描述及空化模型研究进展
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洪方文 , 袁国辉, 翟树成, 郑巢生, 刘登成
作者信息
  • 中国船舶科学研究中心,江苏 无锡 214082
  • 洪方文(1971-),男,研究员,通讯作者,E-mail:

    袁国辉(2000-),男,硕士研究生

    翟树成(1986-),男,研究员

    郑巢生(1987-),男,研究员

    刘登成(1982-),男,研究员。

通讯作者:

通讯作者,E-mail:
Mathematical and physical description of cavitation flows and cavitation models
Fang-wen HONG , Guo-hui YUAN, Shu-cheng ZHAI, Chao-sheng ZHENG, Deng-cheng LIU
Affiliations
  • China Ship Scientific Research Center, Wuxi 214082, China
出版时间: 2025-01-20 doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1007-7294.2025.01.015
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空化流动是自然界中广泛存在的一种流体力学现象,它的理论建模和数值模拟方法研究长期以来形成了流体力学领域的重要方向。本文对空化的相变本质进行了阐述,系统地介绍了空化流动的数学物理描述,回顾了空化流动数值模拟的空化模型国内外研究进展,并详细地推演了以输运方程为基础的蒸发冷凝空化模型和泡动力学空化模型,可为空化流动的研究提供借鉴。

空化  /  空化流动数学物理描述  /  空化数值模型

Cavitation is a widely-existing fluid dynamics phenomenon in nature, and its theoretical modeling and numerical simulation methods have long formed an important direction in the field of fluid mechanics. In this paper, the essence of phase transition in cavitation, the mathematical and physical description of cavitation flows, especially the main research results of cavitation models for numerical simulation of cavitation flows are reviewed, providing support for the study of cavitation flow.

cavitation  /  mathematical and physical description of cavitation flow  /  model of cavitation
洪方文, 袁国辉, 翟树成, 郑巢生, 刘登成. 空化流动的数学物理描述及空化模型研究进展. 船舶力学, 2025 , 29 (1) : 156 -169 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1007-7294.2025.01.015
Fang-wen HONG, Guo-hui YUAN, Shu-cheng ZHAI, Chao-sheng ZHENG, Deng-cheng LIU. Mathematical and physical description of cavitation flows and cavitation models[J]. Journal of Ship Mechanics, 2025 , 29 (1) : 156 -169 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1007-7294.2025.01.015
本文所指空化是因流体动力因素作用导致液体内部或液体与固体界面上发生液体与其蒸汽之间的相变过程和现象[1]。空化广泛存在于水利工程、流体机械和水下高速航行体上,它会导致剥蚀、振动和噪声问题,影响工程和设备的安全性与安静性。数值计算是现代研究空化和分析空化性能的主要手段之一,空化流动的数值计算除包含一般多相流计算的关键技术外,空化模型是其能否顺利实施的技术核心。
早期空化流动的计算中把空化区域作为等压气泡看待,使用等压边界条件模拟空化[2-4],它主要适合于势流方法计算空化[5-6]。上世纪九十年代开始利用粘流控制方程求解空化问题,出现了基于状态方程的空化模型[7],这一空化模型在爆炸诱导的空化流动计算中得到较好的应用[8],并且还在持续改进中[9]
现在普遍使用的是基于质量输运方程的空化模型,即在液体和蒸汽的输运方程中添加源项来表达液体与蒸汽的相互转化过程。这种空化模型被广泛接受和不断发展,因为它更加符合空化相变的物理含义。在质量输运方程的空化模型中使用体积分数[10-11]描述蒸汽成分,通过求解包含体积分数的流动力学控制方程模拟空化流动。关于空化流动的数学物理描述有七方程模式[12-15]、六方程模式[16]、五方程模式[17-20]和四方程模式[21-22],其中五方程模式使用最为广泛。
质量输运方程汽液转换源项的建立总体上分成两种途径,汽化和凝结相变模型和泡动力学相变模型。Lee[23]以物理过程为基础,提出了蒸发凝结模型,被称为Lee模型,但其相变的过程使用温度控制,并不适合空化流动的计算。Merle[24]利用分子动力学理论给出了两相界面物质流Hertz-Knudsen[25-26]的相变模型,在这个相变模型中蒸发和凝结的质量流量正比于局部压力与饱和蒸汽压之差。Kunz等[27]、Merkle[28]对这一模型进行了修正,以反映相变流体质量的影响。Saito等[29]、Senocak和Shyy[30]、Wu等[31]把相变界面的运动速度引进到这类空化模型中,以考虑流动动力学过程对相变的影响。Goncalves[32]进一步改进了这类空化模型,在其中引入了声速的影响。
泡动力学相变模型是以Rayleigh-Plesset方程为基础推演出的空化相变模型。Niedžwiedzka等[33]对这类空化模型的进展和演绎过程进行了较为细致的介绍。Kubota等[34]在其考虑群泡影响的空化流动计算中使用了泡动力学方程。Schnerr和Sauer[35]通过Rayleigh-Plesset方程推导空化过程的相变率,给出以泡动力学为基础的质量转换空化模型。这种构建空化模型的方式因体现了空化的流体动力学过程及气核在空化过程中的重要作用而得到人们的青睐。Singhal等[36]在此基上提出了考虑湍流动能、表面张力,及不可凝结气体影响的所谓完全空化模型;Iben[37]和Zwart[38]通过修正空隙率与蒸汽泡直径和密度的关系进一步简化了Schnerr和Sauer的空化模型。至此这类空化模型的总体形式已经确定,后续不断有学者考虑各类因素的影响对模型进行修正。Konstantinov[39]解出考虑粘性作用的汽泡半径变化速率,并修正了Zwart空化模型;Ye等[40]利用与Kubota[34]类似的方式在空化模型中考虑群泡的相互影响;Asnaghi等[41]考虑了相变特征时间以及流体应力对空化过程的影响;Kinzel[42]利用忽略粘性影响的汽泡半径变化速率的Rayleigh-Plesset方程全解析解[43]构建了空化发展和溃灭的空化模型,这一模型在空化发展和溃灭后期表现出不同的动力学行为,更符合物理实际;Narayanan[44]在Schnerr和Sauer模型的基础上考虑温度对空化过程的影响,更为突出的是通过状态方程分析了空化的非平衡相变效应。
本文将回顾空化模型主要研究进展,以及空化模型的演绎过程,同时对空化相变的物理过程,以及空化流动的数学物理描述进行介绍。
空化的本质是相变,表现形式为液体中的蒸汽泡“爆发性”增长[45]。所谓的相变是物质从一种状态转变为另一种状态,在空化中是由液相转变为气相。液相与气相之间相变所遵循的规律和发生的条件,在一般的热力学或分子物理学专著中都有详细的论述[46]。大部分物质由分子构成,分子间斥力和引力的合力Fr)与分子间距离r的关系如图1所示。在斥力和引力相等时,分子间距离保持在一种平衡位置r0(10-10 m量级),这时物质表现为凝聚态(固体或液体)。一般分子不会静止不动,它会在平衡位置振动,即热运动,也就是宏观上表现的温度。当热运动强烈时,分子会摆脱彼此的束缚,逃离平衡位置,从而转变为分离状态,也就是气体,即产生了从液态向气态的相变。
如果掌握了物质中所有分子间作用力,就可以计算出物质的状态特性,跟踪发生相变的过程,但这是不可能的,往往用宏观统参量来描述物质状态。温度T、压力P和体积V是经常用来描述物质状态的三个参量,它们三者之间满足函数关系fTPV),即状态函数。通常把物质分为固态、液态、气态三个相,它们在(PT)参数图上处于不同的区域,并可以互相转化,即相变,如图2所示。
对于物质不同的相,所满足的状态方程也不一样。为了说明气液相变的条件,可以用1873年范德瓦尔斯[46]提出的范氏方程来定性地统一描述液相和气相的物态方程:
其中,N是摩尔数,R是摩尔气体常数,ab为常数。式(1)描述的等温条件下PV的关系如图3所示。
对于气体来讲a/V2b可以忽略不计,式(1)表现为理想气体的状态方程(图3QD段):
V接近于b时,式(1)有类似于液体的状态方程的特性(如图3AP段):
因而在液相的状态下,体积的微小变化,意味着压力的剧烈变化。在图3中范氏等温线为ABCD,其中AB段为液体的等温线,CD为气体的等温线。在BC点之间,同一个压力值对应三个体积,如Pv对应P点、Q点和H点,当然H点在线段BC上是不稳定的,其压力随体积的增大而增大。P点和Q点表示在压力Pv和温度T时,物质既可以是液体,也可以是气体,即液气共存,发生相变。相变时,压力P和温度T不变,当达到平衡状态时,物质的吉布斯函数G最小,其变分等于0,即
这里下标l和v分别代表液相和气相;N为摩尔数,也就是物质的量;μ是物质的化学势,即1摩尔物质的吉布斯函数。在相变过程中总物质量是不变的,所以δNv=-δNl。从式(4)可以看出,要保持吉布斯函数G的变分为0,需要保持μl=μv,即液相和气相的化学势相等,这也是发生相变的条件。物质化学势是温度和压力的函数,利用化学势相等的条件,可以得到发生相变时温度T和压力P的关系,即相图2。化学势相等只是说明了发生相变的条件,但并没有给出发生相变的量,也就是ΔN有多大(Δ表示实际发生的变化)。从发生相变吉布斯函数变化的条件有
进一步表达为相变数量的关系:
其中,u表示1摩尔物质的内能;υ表示1摩尔物质的体积;Q为系统吸收的热量;S是系统的熵,它的变化量与吸收热量的关系[46]
这是熵的计算公式,通过式(6)可得
式(8)表明,在相变过程中系统需要不断吸收热量,这已经是一个常识,如果水要持续沸腾,就必须不断提供热量。同样在空化过程中,需要不断向空化发生区域提供热量,致使空化附近的温度降低,一般情况下空化区域周围的温度大约会降低1℃左右[47],这对流动过程影响很小。式(8)的意义在于在相变的数值模拟中,利用它可以计算出物质转换的数量。
忽略溶解气体与不可凝结气体的转换,空化流动可以认为是彼此不相溶但两相之间可以转换的汽液混合流动。空化流动的描述总体上分为多组份流体描述和单流体描述。所谓的多组份流体描述是针对流体中的每一组份建立流动动力学方程,而单流体描述是把多组份的流体作为一种混合流体建立流体动力学方程进行描述。多组份流体描述可以得到很精细的流动过程,但建模和计算复杂。单流体描述建模计算相对简单,但结果粗糙。两种方法各有优缺点,具体看问题的需要和计算资源配置。
在空化流动描述中用αi来描述i相的空间占有比例,i=lv。当αi=1时,该空间完全被第i相占据。当αi=0时,该空间不存在第i相。当0 < αi < 1时,该空间存在部分第i相。由于气液两相是彼此不相溶的,所以它们总的空间占有比率为1,即
定义第i相流体的密度、单位物质的能量和内能分别为ρieiεi,以及压力、温度和流体质点的速度矢量分别为piTiui。其中能量等于内能和动能的和,即
忽略不可凝结气体的影响,可以把空化流动看作气液两相组合的混合流体,它的密度ρ、单位物质的能量e和内能ε计算公式分别为
同样可以定义混合流体的压力p、温度T和速度分别为
根据以上的关系,可以得到eε之间的关系为
式中最后一项是由相间的相对运动引起的,记为ϵ。对于平均运动,如果把混合流体作为一个系统,它可以计入这个系统的内能。式(13)可写为
空化流动作为两相流体的运动同样遵守质量、动量和能量守恒方程。质量守恒方程为
以上两式分别是液相和气相的质量守恒方程,两式的左边第一项表示质量的改变量,第二项为质量的流出量,右边为气液两相之间的物质转换,表示气相向液相的转换量,而是液相向气相的转换量。
在不考虑体积力的情况下,动量守恒方程为
两式中右边两项分别表示动量的改变量和流出的动量。左边第一项为流体压力作用,p为两相的总压力,它的计算公式见式(12)。τ为总的偏应力,
τlv是单相的偏应力张量,
式中,μlv分别是l相的粘性系数和膨胀粘性系数,I是单位张量。式(16)中最后两项是两相物质交换引起的动量交换,RvlRlv是两相之间的相互作用力[12]
式中,Klv为作用系数,与众多因素相关,这里不深入讨论,Klv=Kvl
在不考虑输入热量的情况下能量守恒方程为
式中,分别是液相和气相热通量流,包括温度差引起的热传导;Qvl=-Qlv是两相之间交换的能量[12]
式中:第一项是相间的热交换,Lvl=Llv;第二项是由于相间作用产生的能量交换,Kvl=Klv;第三项是界面能的变化,一般情况下HvlHlv;最后一项是组份间物质交换引起的内能交换。
体积分数的输运方程为
式中,μ是作用系数,αl +αv=1是两相不相溶的限制条件。
式(15)、(16)、(20)、(22)是空化流动的质量、动量、能量的守恒方程、体积分数的输运方程,加上相关的物态方程,以及内能的表达公式,形成了接近于全面的空化流体力学控制方程,它们被称为七方程模式[12-15]。七方程模式虽然描述全面,但求解过程困难,人们在此基础上提出了不同的简化模式。
当两相之间速度不存在差异时,式(16)合并为一个方程[16]
与式(16)相比大为简化,构成六方程模型。
当两相之间速度和温度都相同时,能量方程式(20)[18]可以简化为
形成五方程模式[17-20]
进一步,当两相之间压力相等时,体积分数输运方程可以省略,体积分数可以利用物态在压力相等的限制条件下得到,这是所谓的四方程模式[21-22]
所谓的等压边界相变模型,就是把空化区域作为一个等压空泡来看待,在其边界上满足等压(饱和蒸汽压pv)边界和运动学边界条件,然后求解空泡区域外的流场,如图4所示。这种空化模型在早期的空化流动计算方法研究中被普遍使用,如机翼空化流动的自由流线理论[3]和线性化理论[2448],以及利用升力面[5]和面元法[6]计算螺旋桨片空泡。
图4中给出一个二维水翼形成的超空泡的形态。来流速度为U,攻角为α。整个机翼的背部被空泡包裹,并沿伸到下游,空泡最末端的长度为L,空泡内的压力等于饱和蒸汽压pv
在线性化理论中,假设机翼的厚度、空泡的厚度相对它们的长度为小量,同时来流攻角也为一个小量。这样机翼的空泡流动问题可以用横坐标上的一条割线的绕流来模拟,如图5所示。不失问题的一般性,把机翼的弦长指定为1,在[0,1]范围内下表面(记为-)是机翼的压力面,上表面(记为+)为空泡表面。在[1,L]范围内上下表面都为空泡面。
在攻角很小的情况下,设流域内的流场为
式中,VxVy分别是速度在xy方向的分量,uv是扰动速度。
在空泡表面上,压力为饱和蒸汽压,依照伯努利方程,并且忽略二阶小量,可得到
式中,pv是饱和蒸汽压,p0是无穷远压力,进一步演算得到
式中,σ是空泡数。在机翼的压力面,满足不可穿透边界条件,在忽略二阶小量的情况下有
这样小攻角薄翼的超泡流动可以归结的定解问题[4]
式中,ϕ是速度势,是下表面的空泡压力,是上表面的空泡压力。
针对该定解问题求解有多种方法,如早期的复变函数法[2],后来的升力面法,现在可以利用面元法进行数值求解。当然可以使用数值求解,已经没必要把边界投影到弦线上,直接在物面和空泡面上施加边界条件,并且问题也从二维推广到了三维[49]。另外,如果把空泡末端延长到无穷远就形成了自由流线理论[3]。有关自由流线、升力面、面元法求解空化问题的方法这里就不叙述了,它们求解空泡问题的核心本质上都是把空泡表面作为等压界面。
空化流动的两相流体可以作为一种混合单流体,如果定义了这种单流体的压力p与密度ρ的关系,即状态方程,就可以解出空化流动,这就是所谓的状态方程空化模型,它最早是在1990年由Delannoy和Kueny [7]提出的。
在这一模型中,密度和压力的函数关系通常分为三个区间来定义。当压力大于某一压力值时,介质密度等于水的密度。当压力小于某一压力值时,介质密度等于水蒸汽的密度。而当压力介于上面两压力之间时,介质密度按某一关系fp)在水和蒸汽密度之间过渡,描述如下:
式中,Δp为水汽之间的压力过渡宽度。这样定义的密度和压力的关系如图6所示,从图中可以看出,当流体中的压力降到饱和蒸汽压以下时,流体的密度将迅速下降,并达到水蒸汽的密度,这就从形式上描述了空化的过程。密度压力关系曲线的斜率的倒数与声速平方成正比,从图上可以看到,在饱和蒸汽压处,曲线变化斜率很大,这表示此处的声速很小,在模拟过程中此处对应的声速一般在几米/秒的量级。
fp)的具体形式有多种,有简单函数形式[750]、正弦函数形式[51-52]、多项式形式(如三次曲线形式[53]和五次曲线形式[54])。
在爆炸诱导的空化模拟中,由于需要考虑流体和蒸汽的可压缩性,控制方程需要包含能量方程,利用流体和蒸汽的热力学关系,建立物质分数、内能、比体积、压力和温度之间的状态方程来实现空化的模拟[8]。Simon等[9]给出这样的一种状态方程:
式中,ε是比内能,即单位质量物质的内能;υ是比体积,也就是单位质量的体积,即密度的倒数;Y是物质的质量占比。从以上的关系式中可以根据比内能和比体积得到液体和蒸汽的物质占比。这里似乎不需要再建立空化相变模型,是一个十分理想的空化流动计算方法。实际上这一模型的建立依赖于两相之间的温度和压力瞬间达到平衡状态,并且相变过程在瞬间完成,计算过程很不稳定。
Lee[23]以物理学为基础,提出了蒸发凝结模型,被称为Lee模型。在这个模型中流体-蒸汽的质量转换受蒸汽的输运方程控制,即
这一模型开始是针对温度变化引起的相变,所以其通过温度来确定相变率。
在特定的压力下,当Tl >Tsat时,发生蒸发:
Tv <Tsat时,发生凝结:
式中,C是系数,TlTv分别为流体和蒸汽温度,Tsat是特定压力下的饱和蒸汽温度。式(34)和式(35)是针对液体沸腾的模拟。对于空化流动需要以压力为基本参数来确定相变模型。
在特定压力和温度下,单位时间单位面积内气体分子的质量流[25]
式中,j+是质量流量,pg是气体压力,R是气体常数,M是气体分子的摩尔质量。在空化界面,液体与蒸汽的分子交换量可表示为Hertz-Knudsen公式[2655]
式中,F也是质量流量。式(37)是蒸发冷凝空化模型的基础。Markle[24]把蒸汽质量的改变表示为
式中,YvYl分别为蒸汽和液体的质量分数,τvτl分别是汽和液体质量变化的特征时间。对于蒸汽,其质量变化的特征时间与空化区域压力变化的特征时间是一致的,压力变化的特征时间与流动特征时间具有紧密的联系,蒸汽的特征时间表示为
式中,τref是流动特征时间,k ≈ 10-3,从而可以演化出的空化模型为
式中,pv > p0时的值,这时,而pv < p0的结果,这时。为了书写方便,后续类似的公式也保持这一约定。
Kunz[27]认为液体向蒸汽转变率应正比于液体占有率,对于蒸汽向液体转变需满足金茨堡-朗道(Ginzburg-Landau)理论,于是给出相变模型:
Saito[29]根据气液交界面面积正比于αv(1-αv),给出了与两相界面面积相关的空化模型:
Senocack和Shyy[30]考虑界面运动速度,结合压力和上游密度建立了所谓界面动力学空泡模型(IDM):
Merkle[28]给出了更加依赖于经验的均匀流相变模型:
从以上给出的蒸发冷凝空化相变模型,可以看出其最大的特征是两相之间的物质转化率正比于当地压力与饱和蒸汽压之间的差值,反比于流动的特征时间。该类模型在持续改进中,但最近未出现大的变化。
根据前文的空化流流体力学控制方程,对于空化流动,液体和蒸汽相的质量守恒方程(即输运方程)为
空化被认为是液体中大量气核在特定条件下膨胀和收缩的过程[1],泡动力学空化模型正是基于蒸汽泡的Rayleigh-Plesset方程[47]建立的。流体中单个球形蒸汽泡的半径动力学方程为
式中,Rb为蒸汽泡的半径,R0是蒸汽泡的初始半径,ρl是流体密度,p0是远场压力,pv是饱和蒸汽压,pG0是泡中不可凝结气体的初始压力,νl为流体粘性,λ为表面张力系数,γ是不可凝气体的气体常数。当不考虑表面张力、流体粘性、不可凝气体,并忽略二阶小项时,Rayleigh-Plesset方程可简化为
这一方程是依赖Rayleigh-Plesset方程建立数值空化模型的基础。以下根据它来推导一些著名的泡动力学空化模型。定义混合流体密度为
当流体和蒸汽都为不可压缩流体时,对式(49)求随体导数,有
式(45)和式(46)相加,得
式(45)和式(46)分别除以ρvρl再相加得
把式(52)代入式(51)得到
把式(50)代入式(53)得
蒸汽体积分数αv与蒸汽泡密度n和蒸汽泡半径的关系为
对式(55)求随体导数,得
式(56)右边第一项是半径变化的作用,第二项是气核密度变化的作用。在Singhal空化模型[36]中忽略气核密度变化的作用,把式(56)简化为
把式(54)和式(48)代入式(57),得
从式(58)可以看到,蒸汽的转换率不但与蒸汽的密度ρv相关,还与液体的密度ρl和混合密度ρ相关,很多空泡模型是通过这个公式演化而来的。Singhal[36]认为相变发生率应与发生相变相的质量相关,与当地脉动速度相关,并且气核的直径由气核阻力和表面张力的平衡来确定,结合式(58)给出的空化相变模型为
式中,CeCc为经验系数,从量纲分析得到它们具有速度的量纲;k为湍动能;σ是表面张力。另外,Singhal模型在pv中考虑湍动能的影响:
Schnerr和Sauer[56]把式(55)的空间占有率改为
这一计算方法考虑到蒸汽泡膨胀对气核密度的影响,并且这一计算公式保证了蒸汽占有体积比不超过1,似乎更符合实际物理过程。利用这一表达方式,通过以上类似的演算过程,可以得到
很有意思的是,式(62)中包含了αv(1-αv)这一因子,即在αv=0和αv=1时相变率都为零,相变率最大在两者之间。也就是所谓的Schnerr and Sauer相变模型,它的最终表达式为
Zwart-Gerber-Belamri[57]认为如果蒸汽泡的大小都是统一的,那么相变率可以直接由蒸汽泡的体积变化率得到,即
结合式(55)和式(48)得到
这是相变率最为简洁的表达,这里相变率仅仅与蒸汽密度相关,而与流体密度和混合密度无关。式(66)虽然是依照蒸发过程推导的,但它只能针对冷凝过程工作得较好,而对于蒸发过程是不稳定的。基本原因是没有考虑到泡与泡之间的相互作用。随着蒸汽体积的增加,气核的密度必然减小。考虑这一点,Zwart-Gerber-Belamri[57]使用αnuc(1-αv)替代αv,这样得到的空化模型为
这就是所谓的Zwart-Gerber-Belamri空化模型。Kinzel等[42]利用式(47)的不考虑粘性的蒸汽泡半径变化速率解析解[43]
忽略表面张力和二阶小量得到考虑不可凝气体的蒸汽泡半径变化速率:
再给出蒸发模型:
这一模型称为Kinzel-Lindau-Kunz空化模型。式中,α0是初始蒸汽泡分数,αG0是初始不可凝气体分数。
泡动力学空化相变模型是基于泡动力学推导得到的,与蒸发凝结空化相变模型最大的不同是其相间物质转换率正比于当地压力与饱和蒸汽压之差的开方,它与流体动力学过程是耦合在一起的。该类空化模型仍在持续改进之中,但对相变非平衡空化流动的模拟还有很大的欠缺。
本文对有关空化的相变本质、空化流动的数学物理描述,特别是对空化流动数值模拟的空化模型的国内外主要研究成果进行了回顾。空化流动的数学物理描述包括七方程、六方程、五方程和四方程等模式。空化模型主要包括等压边界空化模型、状态方程空化模型、蒸发冷凝空化模型和基于泡动力学空化模型。等压边界空化模型主要使用在势流的空化流动计算方法中,基于状态方程空化模型主要使用在强烈变化流动诱导的空化计算中。蒸发冷凝空化模型和泡动力学空化模型是目前主流空化模型,蒸发冷凝空化模型体现了相变物理过程,而泡动力学空化模型以流体动力学为基础,并充分体现了气核在空化过程中的作用。总体上看,近期使用泡动力学空化模型开展空化流动计算的文献较多,主要原因可能是其计算稳定性更好。目前该类空化模型还在不断发展之中,但其对非平衡相变过程的模拟能力需要提高。
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2025年第29卷第1期
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doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1007-7294.2025.01.015
  • 接收时间:2024-07-17
  • 首发时间:2026-03-24
  • 出版时间:2025-01-20
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    中国船舶科学研究中心,江苏 无锡 214082

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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