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The air lubrication drag reduction is a flow control method for energy-saving and carbon reduction. Under the background of “carbon peaking, carbon neutrality” strategy in China, the air lubrication drag reduction is essential for the development of low-carbon and zero-carbon ships since it can effectively reduce the ship resistance. In this paper, the background of the air lubrication drag reduction technology both at home and abroad is introduced. The definition and classification of air lubrication drag reduction are clarified based on the air-water flow regime and drag reduction mechanisms, i.e. dispersed bubble drag reduction and continuous air layer drag reduction. The progress of dispersed bubble drag reduction and continuous air layer drag reduction in two-phase flow regimes, drag reduction characteristics and mechanisms are summarized respectively. Finally, the status of air lubrication drag reduction is summarized and the future opportunities in this field are discussed.

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在我国“碳达峰、碳中和”战略背景下,气体润滑减阻作为一种流动控制节能与降碳方法,可有效降低船舶航行阻力,对我国船舶及航运业的低碳发展意义重大。本文介绍了气体润滑减阻研究的国内外背景及意义,阐述了气体润滑减阻的定义及分类方式,特别是提出了基于气液两相界面形态与减阻机理的离散气泡减阻和连续气层减阻分类方式,并在此基础上分别梳理了离散气泡减阻和连续气层减阻在减阻特性、减阻机理、两相流态及其影响因素等方面的进展情况,总结并展望了气体润滑减阻的研究现状和该领域的未来发展趋势。

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通讯作者,E-mail:
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秦世杰(1991-),男,博士,副研究员

吴大转(1977-),男,博士,教授,通讯作者,E-mail:

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吴大转(1977-),男,博士,教授,通讯作者,E-mail:

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气体润滑减阻研究综述
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秦世杰 1, 2 , 季盛 3, 4 , 伍锐 1, 3, 4 , 吴大转 1, 2
船舶力学 | 研究综述 2024,28(6): 951-966
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船舶力学 | 研究综述 2024, 28(6): 951-966
气体润滑减阻研究综述
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秦世杰1, 2, 季盛3, 4, 伍锐1, 3, 4, 吴大转1, 2
作者信息
  • 1.浙江大学 能源工程学院,杭州 310027
  • 2.浙江省清洁能源与碳中和重点实验室,浙江 嘉兴 314031
  • 3.上海船舶运输科学研究所有限公司,上海 200135
  • 4.航运技术与安全国家重点实验室,上海 200135
  • 秦世杰(1991-),男,博士,副研究员

    吴大转(1977-),男,博士,教授,通讯作者,E-mail:

通讯作者:

通讯作者,E-mail:
Review on air lubrication drag reduction
Shi-jie QIN1, 2, Sheng JI3, 4, Rui WU1, 3, 4, Da-zhuan WU1, 2
Affiliations
  • 1.College of Energy Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
  • 2.Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Clean Energy and Carbon Neutrality, Jiaxing 314031, China
  • 3.Shanghai Ship and Shipping Research Institute, Shanghai 200135, China
  • 4.State Key Laboratory of Navigation and Safety Technology, Shanghai 200135, China
出版时间: 2024-06-20 doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1007-7294.2024.06.014
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在我国“碳达峰、碳中和”战略背景下,气体润滑减阻作为一种流动控制节能与降碳方法,可有效降低船舶航行阻力,对我国船舶及航运业的低碳发展意义重大。本文介绍了气体润滑减阻研究的国内外背景及意义,阐述了气体润滑减阻的定义及分类方式,特别是提出了基于气液两相界面形态与减阻机理的离散气泡减阻和连续气层减阻分类方式,并在此基础上分别梳理了离散气泡减阻和连续气层减阻在减阻特性、减阻机理、两相流态及其影响因素等方面的进展情况,总结并展望了气体润滑减阻的研究现状和该领域的未来发展趋势。

气体润滑  /  离散气泡  /  连续气层  /  减阻  /  节能  /  降碳  /  船舶

The air lubrication drag reduction is a flow control method for energy-saving and carbon reduction. Under the background of “carbon peaking, carbon neutrality” strategy in China, the air lubrication drag reduction is essential for the development of low-carbon and zero-carbon ships since it can effectively reduce the ship resistance. In this paper, the background of the air lubrication drag reduction technology both at home and abroad is introduced. The definition and classification of air lubrication drag reduction are clarified based on the air-water flow regime and drag reduction mechanisms, i.e. dispersed bubble drag reduction and continuous air layer drag reduction. The progress of dispersed bubble drag reduction and continuous air layer drag reduction in two-phase flow regimes, drag reduction characteristics and mechanisms are summarized respectively. Finally, the status of air lubrication drag reduction is summarized and the future opportunities in this field are discussed.

air lubrication  /  dispersed bubble  /  continuous air layer  /  drag reduction  /  energy-saving  /  carbon reduction  /  ship
秦世杰, 季盛, 伍锐, 吴大转. 气体润滑减阻研究综述. 船舶力学, 2024 , 28 (6) : 951 -966 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1007-7294.2024.06.014
Shi-jie QIN, Sheng JI, Rui WU, Da-zhuan WU. Review on air lubrication drag reduction[J]. Journal of Ship Mechanics, 2024 , 28 (6) : 951 -966 . DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1007-7294.2024.06.014
2030年碳达峰、2060年碳中和,是我国为应对气候变化作出的庄严承诺与重大战略决策。与大多数已经进入后工业化时期的发达国家相比,我国仍处于工业化阶段,各行各业低碳转型任务艰巨、挑战严峻。航运业作为传统高能源消耗行业,年燃油消耗量与碳排放量巨大[1]。对于船舶能耗与排放而言,航行阻力是船舶燃油能耗与碳排放的主要原因。气体润滑减阻作为一项新型节能降碳技术,通过利用气体与液体的物性差异,将气体引入船体表面的液相边界层形成离散或连续的气液两相滑移界面,能够显著降低船舶航行阻力,进而能有效降低航运过程中的燃料消耗和二氧化碳排放。已有研究表明,利用气体润滑减阻技术后,气层覆盖区减阻率可达80%以上[2],且气体润滑减阻附加装置较为简单,所需原料仅为无环境影响的廉价压缩空气或燃烧后的废气,具有极大的技术可行性与经济效应。因此,第28届国际拖曳水池会议(ITTC)中有关节能技术的专题报告[3]认为,气体润滑减阻在船舶及水下航行体减阻领域具有极大的应用和发展前景。
目前,国内外相继开展了较为丰富的气体润滑减阻基础与应用研究,取得了一定的成果。本文立足国内外已有研究并结合作者在气体润滑减阻领域的研究基础,阐述气体润滑减阻的定义与分类,重点梳理并分析气体润滑减阻特性、机理及两相流态等方面的基础研究,总结并展望气体润滑减阻的研究现状和未来发展趋势,为我国气体润滑减阻的研究与应用提供参考。
气体润滑减阻是一类将气体引入液相近壁边界层,利用气体“润滑”作用使壁面阻力降低的流动控制减阻方法。已有文献中包括的气幕减阻[4-5]、气膜减阻[6-8]、气泡/微气泡减阻[9-13]、气层减阻[14-17]、气穴减阻[18-20]、通气减阻[21-22]、超空泡减阻[23-24]等在内的研究,均属于气体润滑减阻的范畴。目前文献中对上述气体润滑减阻等的相关概念仍较为含糊,不同学者对于同一对象的表述差别较大,有些从功能上命名,有些从方式或者形态上命名,缺乏较为统一的定义与分类。因此,本文尝试对气体润滑减阻的定义及其分类进行统一与明确。这里采用气体润滑减阻作为上述文献中各类减阻方法的统称,主要是考虑气体润滑能够形象地囊括上述多种减阻方法,同时又与国际海事组织及中国船级社对相关技术的叫法相统一。值得说明的是,广义的气体润滑减阻概念还应包含疏水/超疏水表面材料减阻,此部分本文不做详细介绍。
有关气体润滑减阻的分类,从气体润滑减阻中气液两相界面形态的角度进行分类,根据气液两相界面形态的差异,可将气体润滑减阻分为离散气泡减阻(dispersed bubble drag reduction)和连续气层减阻(continuous air layer drag reduction),如图1图2所示。已有研究中,气泡减阻、微气泡减阻等都属于离散气泡减阻的范畴,只是根据离散气泡的粒径大小做了进一步区分。而气膜减阻、气穴减阻、气层减阻、超空泡减阻等由于具有连续的气液界面形态,都是属于连续气层减阻。其中,气穴减阻一般特指利用机械结构形成穴型几何结构,对气层的覆盖区域加以限制的特殊连续气层减阻形式,典型的例如利用流动分离装置、侧边挡板、尾部密封等[225-27]对气层覆盖区域进行约束,以减少气层局部上浮或脱落,增强气层稳定性。而本质上,气穴减阻和气层减阻并无差别,都属于气液界面连续的连续气层减阻。
值得注意的是,本文对离散气泡和连续气层减阻的分类不仅仅是基于表观界面形态的不同,更重要的是不同界面形态下的离散气泡和连续气层减阻机理也截然不同。以近壁二维剪切流动为例,其壁面摩擦力的计算公式可表示为
式中,τ为壁面剪应力,S为对应的受力面积。
对于离散气泡减阻而言,由于近壁液体还是以连续相液体为主,因而其减阻机理可基于单相流动进行推演。以近壁二维剪切流动为例,其单相流动壁面剪应力的计算公式可近似表达为
将其中的雷诺应力项类比成粘性应力,同时以涡粘系数(νt)类比粘性系数(ν),则雷诺应力部分可用下式近似估算:
那么,上式的壁面摩擦力的计算可以相应简化为
由式(4)可知,决定壁面摩擦力的主要参数有:流体密度(ρ)、流体粘度(ν)、涡粘系数(νt)和速度梯度。对于离散气泡减阻而言,如图1所示,其近壁流动仍是以液相为主的含气泡液体边界层流动,离散气泡的引入并未改变近壁基本流动结构。因此,离散气泡减阻的减阻机理主要是由于气泡的引入,部分改变了近壁混合流体的密度、粘度、涡粘系数及速度梯度,进而形成减阻效果。
而与离散气泡减阻不同,连续气层减阻中,由于连续的气层直接替换了紧贴壁面的液相介质,造成原有近壁液相流动结构与纯液相流动不同。如图2所示,连续气层覆盖的近壁流动部分为纯气相流动,未覆盖部分为原液相流动。因此,对于连续气层减阻而言,其与式(1)对应的壁面摩擦力计算公式为
式中,τlτg分别为液相剪应力和气相剪应力,SlSg分别为对应的液相和气相受力面积,且S = Sl + Sg。由于气层覆盖处的剪应力远小于液相覆盖面的剪应力(τgτl),因而气层减阻后的总阻力可近似表示为
由式(6)不难发现,连续气层减阻的机理更为简单,即直接是液相沾湿面积的减小。相应地,连续气层覆盖率越大,则相应的总减阻率越高。
此外,根据气体润滑减阻中气体来源或生成方式的不同,还可以将气体润滑减阻分为通气减阻(ventilated drag reduction)和非通气减阻(non-ventilated drag reduction)两大类。通气减阻,顾名思义主要是指通过通入外部气体的减阻方式,而非通气减阻则是不通过主动通气,而借助电解产气、低压空化或加热汽化等从液体自身产生气体或蒸汽的润滑减阻方式。现有船舶气体润滑减阻研究中,绝大部分气体润滑减阻研究均是依靠通入外部不可冷凝气体的通气减阻,只有少部分属于非通气减阻方式。典型的非通气减阻方式有:利用高速低压空化的超空泡射弹[28]和利用莱顿弗罗斯特(Leidenfrost)汽化效应的泰勒库特流减阻[29]。而像“暴风雪”鱼雷的超空泡减阻,则是较特殊的将通气和非通气相结合的减阻方式,即同时利用外部通入的不可冷凝气体和液体自身汽化产生的水蒸气作为气体润滑的气源。由于船舶气体润滑减阻研究中主要是主动通气减阻,因此下文介绍的气体润滑减阻如无特殊说明,均属于通气减阻范畴。
上文基于气液界面形态及减阻机理对离散气泡减阻和连续气层减阻这两类气体润滑减阻方法进行了新的分类。该分类方式从形态和减阻机理上对两类不同的气体润滑减阻方法进行了本质区分,下文将基于此分类,分别就离散气泡减阻和连续气层减阻的研究现状进行综述介绍,梳理其各自的减阻特性、两相流态及减阻机理。
离散气泡减阻的想法最早可以追溯到18世纪,当时就有实验流体力学研究者提出过与之相关的想法[10]。1973年McCormick等[30]较早在回转体上开展了电解水产生氢气泡的减阻实验,并成功测量和报道了气泡减阻效果。此后,大量研究者对回转体、平板和管内离散气泡减阻进行了系列研究,本章主要从离散气泡减阻特性(减阻率)与影响因素、减阻机理、离散气泡分布与持久性等方面对相关研究现状进行综述介绍。
减阻特性方面,McCormick等[30]早期通过实验测量发现,铜导线电解生成的氢气泡能够在回转体表面产生显著的减阻效果,且边界层内的氢气含量对减阻效果影响极大。同一时期,前苏联学者Migirenko等在零压力梯度平板上进行了大量的气泡减阻实验,探究了流速(U:2~11 m/s,Re:2×105~3.7×106)、通气量、排气口、流向位置等对气泡减阻的影响,研究发现气泡局部减阻率可达80%及以上,且减阻率随着雷诺数的增大而减小,随着通气量的增大而增大。上述研究成果均发表在俄文期刊上,有关这些早期气泡减阻实验的较为详细的介绍,可参考Merkle等的综述论文[12]
此后,美国宾州州立大学的Madavan、Detuseh和Merkle[1231-32]于1985年前后,开始复现和验证前苏联学者的相关气泡减阻研究。通过水洞平板和回转体的气泡减阻实验,开展了流速范围在4~17 m/s(Re:2.8×106~1.0×107)、气量范围在0~0.005 m3/s(最大气量约为前苏联实验的5倍)之间的气泡减阻研究,通过整体测力天平测得了50%~80%的平板综合减摩阻效果,进一步确定了气泡减阻的有效性。国内董文才等[33]通过平板气泡减阻实验,也研究了不同流量、流速和喷气方式等对减阻效果的影响,研究发现在2~6 m/s流速下,实测气泡减阻率在50%~90%。基于多个实验结果的总结,Merkle等[12]首次给出了基于边界层含气率的气泡减阻率经验公式,即:Cf/Cf0=0.8×exp(-4Cv)+0.2,其中Cv=Qa/(Qa+Qw),QaQw分别为基于边界层的气体和液体体积流量。Sanders等[13]通过13 m平板的大尺度减阻实验(U:6~18 m/s,Re:7×107~2.1×108)进一步发现,Qw以边界层动量厚度用于通气系数(Cv)的无量纲化,可获得更好的通气系数与减阻率之间的相关关系。然而,Kodama等[34]指出基于Merkle和Deutsch的近壁边界层含气率减阻率经验关系并不适用于大尺度结果,在20 m和40 m平板离散气泡减阻测试中,实测减阻率高于上述经验公式计算的减阻率,因而需要进一步开展气泡减阻尺度效应研究。Thill等[35]开展了两种不同尺度的离散气泡减阻模型实验以探究离散气泡减阻的尺度效应,但并未获得有效的离散气泡减阻尺度效应结论。李百齐等[36]也尝试给出了基于弗劳德数和无量纲通气系数的相似律,但其有效性尚未得到认可。Ceccio[37]统计归纳了多个离散气泡减阻实验的无量纲通气系数与减阻率的结果(如图3所示),发现不同离散气泡减阻实验的数据难以形成有效的归一化,对于离散气泡减阻率的经验准则与尺度效应仍有待进一步研究。
除了离散气泡减阻的局部和整体减阻特性,国内外学者还对喷口形式、气泡尺寸和气体种类等影响开展了研究,相关结论对于离散气泡减阻实船设计应用具有一定借鉴意义。Merkle等的综述论文[12]介绍了早期Migirenko等关于排气孔直径对气泡减阻效果的实验研究,当排气孔直径在1~3 μm时,减阻效果最佳(局部最大减阻率达80%以上),排气孔直径为50~100 μm时,几乎没有减阻效果;与之差异较大的是,Madavan等[32]随后测量了名义孔径为0.5~100 μm的多孔板,发现在该范围内喷气孔径对减阻率基本没有影响;Moriguchi等[38]较为定量地研究了平均直径1 mm左右的气泡尺寸大小对减阻率的影响,研究发现该尺寸的气泡大小对局部减阻率没有明显影响,减阻率整体上仅和平均含气率呈正相关性;Kodama等[34]使用了名义孔径2 μm的多孔板和1 mm的规则孔板,也发现整体上两者减阻效果相近;Shen等[39]也试验了直径在44~476 μm之间的多种不同大小气泡(当量尺寸为18~200y+)的减阻效果,研究发现减阻率主要受气体体积流量与边界层静压影响,而气泡尺寸大小基本对减阻率没有影响;董文才等[33]通过平板气泡减阻实验,研究了流量、流速、孔喷、缝喷、断阶等对减阻效果的影响,研究发现在2~6 m/s流速下,气泡减阻率为50%~90%,孔喷和缝喷对减阻效果影响不大,孔径对减阻效果影响也不大。
上述研究结果中,除前苏联学者的平板减阻实验显示气泡注入孔径与减阻率的相关性外,其他研究均未发现喷口孔径及气泡尺寸对减阻率有影响。作者认为上述差异主要是由于前苏联学者的平板减阻实验中气泡在上、平板在下,大孔径多孔板喷气形成的大气泡极易在浮力作用下上浮逃逸远离壁面,而小孔径多孔板产生的小气泡浮力作用不显著,可一定程度上存留在壁面附近,因而表现出喷气孔径对减阻效果的影响。而对于其他实验(包括离散气泡减阻的实船应用),由于气泡在下、平板在上,浮力并不影响气泡逃逸,因而喷口孔径和气泡尺寸对减阻影响不大。有关气泡在近壁受力与运动的详细分析,在Sanders等[13]和黄红波等[40]的研究工作中也有相关介绍,这里不再赘述。值得说明的是,有关气泡粒径对减阻效果影响的定量分析,需要在考虑气泡浓度和近壁受力特性的情况下进行定量分析,而不仅仅是定性地给出有无影响的结论。
Detuseh等[41-43]进一步就气体种类、气泡与聚合物耦合作用等对减阻效果的影响开展了研究。Fontaine等[42]试验了氦气、氩气、空气、二氧化碳和六氟化硫这5种气体的减阻效果,尽管这些气体的密度差异较大(0.165~6.4 kg/m3),溶解度也不同,但除了由于高背压会造成有较大溶解度的气体减阻效果变差外,不同气体的减阻效果并无显著差别。Skudarnov等[44]通过计算流体力学(CFD)方法研究也发现气体的密度对于减阻率的影响极小。而在聚合物和气泡减阻的耦合减阻研究[41]上,气泡与聚合物的耦合减阻效果要优于两者单独的减阻效果,一定程度上丰富了气泡同其他减阻方法结合的可能性。
由第1章中摩擦阻力的理论推导可知,离散气泡减阻其近壁流动仍是以液体为主的含气泡液相边界层流动,其中液体为连续相,气泡为离散相,离散气泡的引入并未从根本上改变近壁液相基本流动结构。根据1.2节中的式(4),在理论层面,离散气泡减阻的减阻原因不外乎是气泡的引入改变了近壁混合流体的密度、粘度、涡粘系数及速度梯度,进而形成减阻效果。早期,Legner[45]通过近壁剪应力模型理论推导,也给出了近壁边界层中存在气泡引起阻力降低的两个可能原因:其一,气泡的存在导致近壁两相混合介质的密度降低;其二,气泡的存在相当于增加了局部有效粘度,起到了湍流调制的作用,上述两个机制的共同作用导致壁面阻力的降低。其中,混合介质物性变化引起壁面阻力降低这一减阻机制比较明确,而有关气泡引起涡粘系数和速度梯度等改变这一减阻机制,由于涉及气泡与湍流相互作用等问题,目前尚不清晰。但从已有研究来看,根据气泡是否存在变形,相关研究主要可以分为以下两类:
第一类是将气泡视为不可变形球形颗粒的研究,这类研究源于固-液两相流研究,将气泡简化成密度较低的固体颗粒,进而研究其湍流减阻机理。例如,Xu等[46]在直接数值模拟(DNS)中发现气泡的湍流调制作用是气泡减阻的重要原因之一;Ferrante等[47]进一步通过DNS模拟发现,近壁气泡使得边界层准流向涡结构远离壁面进而形成湍流减阻效果,如图4所示;而Zhao等[48]的DNS模拟显示球形气泡颗粒减阻主要是由于减少了近壁准流向涡的强度和数量,进而使近壁条带稳定化与扩大化;Jacob等[49]通过粒子图像测速(PIV)测量发现,气泡的存在直接引起近壁拟序结构减少,相应湍流湍动能也被抑制并实现减阻;Feng等[50]通过LES研究发现气泡的注入使得近壁大尺度的涡结构破碎成小尺度结构,相应的涡量变小引起壁面减阻。
第二类是考虑气泡变形的研究,除了气泡自身动量与湍流结构的相互作用外,还涉及气泡变形与湍流流动之间的能量交换。Kitagawa等[51]通过PIV实验测量发现,气泡的存在直接引起雷诺应力及壁面阻力降低,而雷诺应力减小的原因则是气泡的变形(气泡平均直径为0.53 mm);Verschoof等[52]在泰勒-库特流装置内也证实了气泡变形对减阻的有效性,Van den Berg等[53]在保证占空比一致的前提下,分别将低密度空心玻璃珠(直径85 μm)和气泡(直径1 mm)注入泰勒-库特流内筒表面(固体颗粒无形变,气泡存在形变),通过对比实验证实了气泡变形对流动减阻的重要性;Van Gils等[54]也在泰勒库特流实验中发现,气泡保持球形状态下的整体减阻率远低于气泡变形状态下的整体减阻率。Lu等[55]进一步通过DNS揭示了气泡变形的减阻机理,研究发现气泡通过变形能够抑制近壁流向涡结构,进而实现壁面阻力降低;Spandan等[56]通过DNS研究也发现,变形大的气泡流相应减阻率更高,气泡变形引起流场湍动能耗散率减弱进而引起减阻(图5),进一步验证了气泡变形对气泡减阻的贡献。
尽管目前学界尚未就气泡湍流减阻机理达成共识,但由于尺寸极小的气泡几乎不会变形,因此上述将气泡视为不可变形的球形颗粒研究能够比较有效地支撑粒径较小气泡的减阻机理研究,而考虑气泡变形的研究则能一定程度上支撑离散可变形大气泡的减阻机理的研究。Murai[57]以气泡尺寸为划分依据,将气泡与湍流相互作用的减阻机理初步分为三种:(1)直径小于湍流边界层拟序结构的气泡(一般气泡直径<100 μm),借鉴固体颗粒对边界层的影响研究[4858-59],直径小于10个壁面单元的气泡,其减阻机理主要是改变了拟序结构的物性参数,而对于直径大于10个壁面单元的气泡,气泡直接与湍流拟序结构相互作用,湍流调制是其主要减阻机理[46-474960],其中壁面单元是指近壁流体的运动粘度与摩擦速度之比,是近壁边界层特征尺度无量纲化的基本参数;(2)直径与湍流拟序结构相当的气泡,此类气泡不但要关注气泡对拟序结构的调制作用,还需要进一步考虑气泡变形、破碎、合并等形态变化对湍流的影响,根据已有相关研究[5161],直径500 μm左右的气泡,表面轻微变形可吸收部分雷诺应力,而极端的气泡变形(如气泡破碎)则能有效吸收剪应力[62];(3)直径远大于湍流拟序结构但仍小于湍流边界层厚度的气泡,对于此类气泡,其减阻机理主要是通过改变近壁含气率[63-65],进而影响雷诺应力和剪应力。
从气泡减阻机理可以发现,无论是气泡引起边界层混合流体物性改变,还是气泡与近壁湍流结构相互作用形成湍流调制,气泡在近壁面处的法向位置将直接影响上述两种减阻机制。Pal等[66]通过实验测量发现,气泡需在近壁面约150y+范围内才有减阻效果,气泡远离壁面并超出上述距离后,减阻效果基本消失。Guin等[65]使用名义孔径为100 μm的多孔板研究了近壁含气率与局部减阻率的相关性,研究发现近壁1 mm(约200y+~400y+)内的局部含气率与减阻率的拟合结果优于截面宏观含气率的结果,一定程度上证实了Pal等[66]对气泡需在约150y+范围内才有减阻效果的结论;Kato等[60]使用名义孔径为15 μm的多孔板注入气泡,研究发现随着边界层中的气泡增加,近壁100y+以内的速度相应降低,导致近壁速度梯度降低,进而引起壁面阻力下降;Sanders等[13]在大尺度平板气泡减阻实验测量中发现,即便使用直径超过100个壁面单元的气泡,只要气泡在距离壁面300y+以内,就能有较好的减阻效果。
上述研究揭示了气泡法向位置对减阻效果的重要性,而流动方向上距离气泡注入口不同位置的减阻率分布特性(流向减阻持久性),则是离散气泡法向迁移后的具体表现。Merkle等人的综述论文[12]中介绍Migirenko等早期通过局部剪应力元件测量发现(平板在下,气泡在上),在通气口下游15个边界层厚度以外的区域没有减阻效果。同时,含气率探针测量结果表明,近壁气泡的峰值体积分数在0.6~0.7之间,且出现在0.1~0.2倍边界层厚度处,而紧贴壁面处的气泡体积分数则为0。与之差异较大的是,Madavan等[31]也利用局部剪应力元件测量了平板流向多个位置的阻力(平板在上,气泡在下),结果显示低通气量下气泡流向减阻持续长度约为35个边界层厚度,而较高通气量下,气泡流向减阻可持续约60~70个边界层厚度。以上气泡与壁面位置的差异,引起流向减阻持久性的显著差异,进一步证实了气泡法向位置对综合减阻率和流向减阻持久性的重要性。若气泡在上,则浮力造成气泡上浮远离壁面,反之则气泡更易存在于壁面附近,因而Madavan等[31]的流向减阻持久性远大于Merkle等人的综述论文[12]中介绍的Migirenko等的测试结果。Sanders等[13]在大尺度平板气泡减阻实验测量中发现,减阻效果从距离气泡注入口几米的流向位置开始,减阻率大幅下降直至减阻完全失效。通过测量气泡的法向位置发现,下游减阻率下降的主要原因是气泡受近壁剪切速度场影响,导致法向迁移远离壁面。Qin等[67]进一步通过平板气泡减阻实验和CFD-PBM数值模拟发现,在流动方向上,离散气泡减阻的阻力分布呈现四个特征减阻区(如图6所示),依次是不稳定区(I区)、高减阻区(II区)、过渡区(III区)和稳定低减阻区(IV区),这四个减阻区受气液两相流动、平板长度影响呈现非线性分布特点。而流向阻力分布原因主要是由于气泡在上游注入口易聚集并形成具有高减阻效果的连续气层,而在下游位置由于近壁液相边界层变厚,气泡在边界层流向速度梯度的持续影响下,受Magnus力和Saffman力作用向远离壁面方向迁移(气泡粒径较小,浮力作用不显著),造成相应减阻效果逐渐消失。
结合上文气泡法向位置对减阻效果的影响研究不难发现,对于常见的平板在上、气泡在下场景,气泡的法向迁移及其分布是影响粒径较小的离散气泡在流动方向减阻效果差异较大的主要原因。气泡在注入口附近离壁面较近,减阻效果较好,而沿流动方向边界层逐渐变厚,在边界层速度梯度作用下气泡沿壁面法向远离壁面,相应减阻效果逐渐下降直至完全失效。因此,未来对于离散气泡减阻特性及其尺度效应的研究,需要进一步对气泡近壁受力情况、流向阻力分布特性及其减阻机理等进行深入研究。
根据1.1节的定义可知,连续气层减阻是指具有连续气液界面形态的一种气体润滑减阻技术,以往文献中的气膜减阻、气穴减阻、气层减阻等虽在叫法上略有不同,但均属于连续气层减阻范畴。一般地,在离散气泡减阻的基础上,若继续增大通气量,由于气泡间的聚并,如图7所示,固壁表面会从离散气泡流态演化成连续或部分连续的气层流态。由于连续的气层直接替换了紧贴壁面的液相介质,造成气层覆盖区域的近壁流动结构与纯液相区域的近壁流动不同,同时由于气液相极大的密度差异,相比液相区域的阻力,气层覆盖区域引起的阻力几乎可以忽略不计。因此,连续气层覆盖率越大,相应减阻效果越好,气层覆盖相当于直接降低了液相沾湿面积,进而形成减阻效果。本章将着重对连续气层减阻特性、气层形态及其影响因素等相关研究现状进行综述介绍。
连续气层减阻特性方面,根据美国密歇根大学近年来发表的大型水洞(水洞工作截面3 m×3 m)平板减阻实验结果[21726],被气层完全覆盖的区域减阻率可达95%,且气层减阻平板综合减阻率可达80%及以上。由于该实验中主要测量的是平板表面的剪切力,上述数据对应的主要是气层的减摩阻效果。同时,需要说明的是,密歇根大学所试验的工况中,重力波的半波长均大于所采用的平板长度,因此该结果主要代表了单波长气层覆盖下的平板减阻效果。黄红波等[40]同样在大型循环水槽实验中证实了平板表面连续气层减阻的高减阻效果,当平板表面形成有效气层后,实测减阻率可达80%以上,甚至接近100%。Zverkhovskyi[69]通过小型平板水洞实验(水洞工作截面0.3 m×0.3 m),研究了沿流向单个和两个气层的协同减阻效果,在单个气层达到半波长极限前,单个和两个气层减阻效果相当,而后通过布置两个气层可进一步提高单个气层减阻效果,其中对于气层覆盖部分的减阻率与密歇根大学测量结果相当。Murai等[63]通过同步测量局部气层形态与局部阻力发现,只有当气层的流向长度至少为5倍的边界层长度时,气层才能产生相应的减阻效果。
与上述研究差异较大的是,Foeth[70]在气层减阻模型船实验中发现,尽管设计了船底流向及展向多个气层生成结构,但由于船艏复杂三维绕流场的影响,导致气层覆盖效果不佳,进而造成模型实验中并未取得实际减阻效果。Zverkhovskyi[69]也在模型船实验中发现,由于航态干扰气层形态、通气量与航速不匹配等原因,导致模型船船底的气层包裹及其相应的减阻效果并不理想。而由于附加流动分离装置的影响和外置通气的功率消耗,反而造成气层减阻下的船体总阻力和总能耗上升。Qin等[25]通过同步测量平板的阻力和平板表面气层形态,结合减阻率和气层覆盖率的相关分析发现:在气层完全覆盖平板前,减阻率和气层覆盖率呈线性相关,覆盖率越高则减阻率越高;而当气层完全覆盖后,气层的稳定性则对减阻率影响较大,稳定和非稳定气层覆盖的减阻率差值可达30%。因此,对于连续气层的减阻效果分析,必须关注连续气层的覆盖形态及气层的稳定性。由于连续气层固有的不稳定性,使得不同工况与外部扰动下的气层覆盖与减阻效果差异较大。因此,有必要对气层形态及其影响因素进行重点分析。
由上节可知,连续气层的减阻机理主要在于降低液相沾湿面积,气层的形态(即气层在固壁的覆盖状态)对相应气层的减阻效果至关重要。因此,对气层形态的研究是连续气层减阻研究中的关键。Butuzov[72-73]最早于1967年就基于势流理论计算了楔形台阶后形成的二维气层型线,且与实验所测形态较为吻合。Matveev[71]进一步给出了楔形流动分离装置后的4类典型气层(原文称之为空泡)形态,如图8所示,各类气层形态的主要差别为气层的中截面型线,以及尾部与壁面的夹角。其中,第1类为尾部具有回射流的气层形态,其形态与半超空泡类似,且空化数为正值;第2类为尾部与壁面光顺过渡的气层形态,被认为是应用中理想的气层减阻形态,且空化数为负值;第3类为气层理论型线穿过壁面的气层形态,其一般在较高气量下实现;而第4类则是尾部呈波动状态且未与壁面形成闭合的气层,其气量消耗极大。通过在尾部设置闭合装置,Arndt等[27]进一步以气层界面的波峰数量为特征,对后台阶气层形态进行了进一步的分类,不同工况下气层界面可存在零个到多个波峰,其中波峰的数量主要取决于壁面的长度与不同流速下的重力波半波长。
上述Butuzov和Matveev对气层形态的分类依据主要是基于气层的二维截面型线,而Mäkiharju等[26]则是重点在此基础上讨论了气层尾部的气泡脱落形式。气层自后台阶流动分离装置处生成到倾斜尾部闭合,根据气层尾部脱落形式的不同,Mäkiharju等[26]将减阻气层尾部脱落形式分为如图9所示的3种:第1种尾部气层脱落主要是由于界面的波动引起气体脱离;第2种主要由向上游的回射流液体与气液界面接触形成气泡脱落;第3种则是由于液体粘性力引起尾部液体带状拉伸并破碎成气泡。连续气层减阻流动中,实际气层尾部的气泡脱落则主要是由于上述3种形式的部分或共同作用引起。同时在具体参数方面,Mäkiharju等[26]发现表面张力作用只在Weber数较低情况下对尾部泄气影响比较大,当Weber数大于600后,表面张力对气层泄气基本无影响。虽然Mäkiharju等[26]没有重点讨论气层的整体或界面形态,但作者猜测其实验中的气层主要类似Matveev[71]归纳的2、3类气层形态,不同液相流速和气体流量下,其气层主要在上述3类形态内变化。Mäkiharju等[74]还进一步研究了从单个孔排气形成的流向扩展型气层形态,并对扩展型气层的扩散角和弦长等参数进行了无量纲讨论,并在此基础上通过多孔排气研究了多个流向扩展型气层的耦合形态[16]
Qin等[75]在此基础上以气层宏观形态和尾部闭合形式为主要分类依据,对后台阶生成的全部气体润滑减阻形态进行了分类,如图10所示。其中,开式和双管式形态属于连续气层减阻范畴,其本质上分别对应Matveev[71]归纳的1类和2类气层形态,但相比Matveev[71]归纳的二维气层形态,进一步呈现典型的非稳定特性(开式尾部非稳定回射流)和三维特性(双管式展向分岔)。上述气层的非稳定和三维特性也在Barbaca等[76-78]研究中得到证实,其研究的从障碍物结构产生的气层形态,也呈现类似特征。此外,Qin等[75]在实验中还进一步证实了Matveev[71]给出的第2类理想气层减阻形态的理论最大长度为重力波半波长(LC/h = π∙Fr2),也与Butuzov[73]给出的经验公式(LC/h = 3.35∙Fr2)基本一致。Sun等[79]和Qin等[25]进一步通过实验和数值模拟发现,对于平板两侧存在一定流动间隙的情形,由于平板两侧对旋涡的存在,气层长度会明显小于理论重力波半波长,而两侧无流动间隙时气层长度与理论重力波半波长相当。这一结果首次从平板两侧流动差异及对旋涡系的角度,解释了已有文献中关于气层长度与理论重力半波长的差异。
上述对气层形态的研究以均匀来流条件为主,而对于气层减阻在实船中的应用,其来流条件往往存在一定的波动。Arndt等[27]通过水洞实验研究均匀来流和带正弦波动来流下的气层形态,对比发现来流波动并不会破坏气层的覆盖,但波动引起了气层尾部闭合处的波动,使得气层的泄气量更大。同时,对比气层长度发现,来流波动下的气层长度会略小于均匀来流下的气层长度。Sun等[80]以Arndt等[27]的实验为基础,对不同来流波影响下的气层形态开展了数值模拟研究,研究发现随着来流波波长与气层长度的比值变化,气层尾部呈现两种不同的闭合模式,即尾部挤压闭合和尾部收缩闭合。同时通过时频分析发现,气层的固有频率与来流波频率的共振,极易引起显著的气层压力波动,而气层压力波动则直接导致了气层整体的振荡行为。
值得注意的是,有关气层形态和结构的研究,前期研究较多关注于气层的宏观或尾部形态,而对气层内部流动形态的研究较少。近年来,Yoon等[81]首次通过气层内部的平面PIV测量,揭示了后台阶生成的气层中截面二维流动结构,测量结果显示(如图11),气层内部流动大致可分为以下3部分:靠近台阶涡结构、气液边界剪切层和自气层尾部向上游的回流结构。同时,基于气层内部流动的PIV结果,Yoon等[81]归纳气层的泄气主要是通过气液边界剪切层的剪切夹带。Qin等[82]进一步在二维PIV测量基础上,结合CFD数值模拟获取了气层内多个展向截面的气体流动形态,揭示了展向压力梯度驱动的气层内部三维非均匀流动结构。在此基础上,以库特流模型为基础,给出的气层内部流场理论计算模型,可用于预测气层内部的速度场分布,且预测结果与实验和数值模拟结果基本一致。研究发现,气层内部展向与流向的压力梯度对气层内部流动结构的影响较大,对于气层内部流动的进一步刻画有赖于对上述压力梯度分布特性及规律的进一步研究。
气体润滑减阻是一类将气体引入液相近壁边界层,利用气体“润滑”作用使壁面阻力降低的流动控制减阻方法。在国内“双碳”战略实施和IMO分阶段减排要求下,船舶气体润滑减阻技术作为一项创新能效技术,具有较大的发展潜力和应用前景。本文以气体润滑减阻中气液两相界面形态和减阻机理的差异为主要分类依据,将气体润滑减阻分为离散气泡减阻和连续气层减阻。有关上述两类气体润滑减阻的研究现状简要总结如下:
离散气泡减阻基础研究方面,通过几十年的实验和数值模拟研究,学界和工业界已确认离散气泡减阻的有效性。相应减阻效果上,需要特别关注离散气泡在被减阻壁面上的整体分布及其在壁面法向位置的分布,前者决定了离散气泡减阻的理论上限,后者决定了具体的减阻率。目前在对离散气泡法向位置和减阻率的研究中,已基本确认离散气泡需要在近壁面约几百个壁面单位内才有减阻效果,气泡远离壁面后基本没有减阻效果。而气泡的法向位置主要由所受浮力和边界层速度梯度力决定,因此气泡的粒径和所在边界层速度梯度对于气泡的法向位置影响较大。对于壁面在上、气泡在下的减阻对象而言,粒径较大的气泡由浮力主导,容易贴近壁面,粒径较小的气泡则由速度梯度力主导,易于远离壁面。气泡的注入方式和注入口等主要影响注入气泡的粒径和整体分布,在粒径和整体分布差异并不显著的前提下,注入方式和注入口几何结构对离散气泡减阻率的影响不大。由于离散气泡减阻其近壁面流动仍是以液相为主的含气泡液体边界层流动,离散气泡的引入并未从根本上改变近壁面液相的基本流动结构,因此离散气泡的减阻原因主要是气泡的引入改变了近壁面混合流体的密度、粘度(混合介质物性变化)、涡粘系数及速度梯度(湍流调制),进而形成减阻效果。其中,混合介质物性改变的减阻机理较为明确,而湍流调制的作用目前仍有待进一步研究。目前,学界对于气泡湍流调制作用的分析也主要是基于对气泡粒径大小进行的简单区分,对于粒径很小基本不变形的气泡,其湍流调制机理类似于离散固体颗粒与湍流的调制作用,而对于粒径较大、存在变形甚至破裂、聚并的气泡,则除了上述的湍流调制作用外还存在由于气泡变形、破裂和聚并等形态学变化引起的调制作用。目前,学界大量的实验和数值模拟研究致力于寻求流速、气量和减阻率等无量纲参数之间的经验公式,但迄今为止尚未形成有效的经验性公式或准则。作者认为主要原因是已有不同离散气泡减阻研究中,离散气泡的平面整体分布和法向分布差异较大,导致很难形成有效的归一化结果,且部分研究甚至将气层减阻的结果也归为气泡减阻,导致相应结果很难统一。因此,作者认为首先要在形态上对离散气泡减阻与连续气层减阻进行区分,因为两者减阻机理截然不同。而针对离散气泡减阻,则需要重点定量考察离散气泡的平面整体分布和法向分布,这两个分布的定量刻画是建立减阻率与不同宏观流动、边界条件之间有效相关性的桥梁。离散气泡减阻中,宏观流动、边界条件通过直接影响气泡在被减阻平面内的整体分布和法向分布,进而影响相应的减阻效果。作者前期对于离散气泡减阻流向持久性的研究即是对上述问题的一点尝试。未来在这一方面,无论是深入离散气泡减阻的机理还是指导实船离散气泡减阻系统设计,仍有待于进一步的研究。
连续气层减阻方面,已有研究表明连续气层覆盖的位置减阻率可达80%以及以上,减阻效果可观。与离散气泡减阻不同,连续气层减阻中,由于连续的气层直接替换了紧贴壁面的液相介质,造成气层覆盖区域的近壁面流动结构与纯液相区域的近壁面流动不同,同时由于气液相极大的密度差异,相比液相区域的阻力,气层覆盖区域引起的阻力几乎可以忽略不计。因此,气层覆盖相当于直接降低了液相沾湿面积,进而形成减阻效果,连续气层覆盖率越大,相应减阻效果越好。因此,对于连续气层减阻效果及其影响因素的研究,需要重点关注气层形态。目前,对于连续气层减阻形态的分类主要可以分为基于宏观整体形态的分类、基于界面波数的分类和基于尾部闭合模式的分类这三种。理想单波长连续气层减阻的理论最大长度为重力波半波长(即:LC/h = π∙Fr2),在气量足够的情况下也可以生成气层长度大于重力波半波长的多波峰连续气层,但是气量消耗较大。连续气层的尾部闭合方式,直接影响连续气层的稳定性和泄气量,其闭合方式主要受WeReFr和尾部结构的影响。此外,来流的不稳定性以及展向的不均匀性,都会对连续气层的覆盖长度及闭合稳定性产生一定的影响,进而影响连续气层减阻率与所需气量。因此,对于连续气层减阻的研究需要特别关注气层形态及其稳定性。对于气层所需气量的研究则需要在气层形态研究的基础上,对气层内部流动结构进行研究,前期已有关于气层内部库特流模型的研究可有效预测气层内部流动,但对于气层的展向非均匀性及流向压力梯度需要进一步研究,两者是直接影响气层泄气模式的关键因素。
国内外对船舶气体润滑减阻的研究已取得了较为丰富的成果。然而,未来航运低碳、零碳等的发展需求,将对船舶气体润滑减阻研究不断提出新的需求,未来该领域在如下几个方面值得进一步关注与深入研究:
(1)精细化气体润滑减阻的气液两相流数值模拟方法;
(2)离散气泡减阻中气泡的平面整体分布与法向分布特性及规律;
(3)离散气泡减阻机理,特别是气泡输运、形变等的湍流调制减阻机理;
(4)连续气层减阻形态、闭合模式与气层稳定性。
总之,气体润滑减阻作为一种流动控制减阻手段,与之相关的机理研究仍有许多亟待深入研究的地方。一方面,气体润滑减阻流动中涉及的边界层流动、壁湍流调制、近壁气液两相流等,本身就涉及了诸多流体力学中有意思的问题与现象;另一方面,船舶气体润滑减阻技术的开发及应用,又有诸多与工程实际相结合的问题与挑战。因此,无论是气体润滑减阻机理还是相关技术应用的研究,都具有重要的科学与现实意义。
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(52201384)
  • 浙江省自然科学基金资助项目(LQ21E090011)
  • 中央高校基本科研业务费专项资金(2021XZZX013; 226-2022-00208)
  • 航运技术与安全国家重点实验室开放课题
  • 航运技术交通行业重点实验室开放课题
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2024年第28卷第6期
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doi: 10.3969/j.issn.1007-7294.2024.06.014
  • 接收时间:2023-12-16
  • 首发时间:2026-03-21
  • 出版时间:2024-06-20
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  • 收稿日期:2023-12-16
基金
国家自然科学基金资助项目(52201384)
浙江省自然科学基金资助项目(LQ21E090011)
中央高校基本科研业务费专项资金(2021XZZX013; 226-2022-00208)
航运技术与安全国家重点实验室开放课题
航运技术交通行业重点实验室开放课题
作者信息
    1.浙江大学 能源工程学院,杭州 310027
    2.浙江省清洁能源与碳中和重点实验室,浙江 嘉兴 314031
    3.上海船舶运输科学研究所有限公司,上海 200135
    4.航运技术与安全国家重点实验室,上海 200135

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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