Article(id=1315732103053033564, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, issueId=1315732078327616225, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.11883/bzycj-2025-0308, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1758556800000, receivedDateStr=2025-09-23, revisedDate=1774195200000, revisedDateStr=2026-03-23, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1791624578488, onlineDateStr=2026-10-10, pubDate=1788537600000, pubDateStr=2026-09-05, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1791624578488, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-10-10, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1791624578488, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1791624578488, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1315732078327616225, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, year='2026', volume='46', issue='9', pageStart='091001-1', pageEnd='095402-10', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1788537600000', pubDateStr='2026-09-05', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1791624572593, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1791624783658, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1315732963703247483, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, issueId=1315732078327616225, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1315732963703247484, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, issueId=1315732078327616225, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=094101-1, endPage=094101-16, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1315732103296303198, articleId=1315732103053033564, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, language=EN, title=Coupling mechanism between jet and ground effect for a triangular three-nozzle rocket-sled and its layout effects, columnId=1315732103220805725, journalTitle=Explosion and Shock Waves, columnName=Experimental Techniques & Numerical Methods, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

To investigate the complex wake flow characteristics of multi-motor parallel rocket sleds, this study focuses on the mechanisms by which the nozzle horizontal spacing and the impingement height influence the flow structure and ground effect. A three-dimensional physical model was constructed for a dual-rail rocket sled system featuring three nozzles arranged in a triangular pyramid configuration. Four operating conditions were established, including large spacing (s=7d), small spacing (s=1d), low impingement height (h=2d), and high impingement height (h=5.5d). Here, s represents the horizontal center-to-center distance of the nozzles, h denotes the impact height, and d signifies the diameter of the nozzle outlet. The effects of nozzle center distance and impingement height on the flow field structure and ground effect were comparatively analyzed. Numerical simulations were performed using a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method based on the Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes equations, coupled with the Realizable k-ε turbulence model for transient solutions. The combustion chamber pressure-time curve derived from interior ballistic theory was applied to the nozzle inlet via a user-defined function (UDF). The sled velocity-time curve, determined from the exterior ballistic particle trajectory equation, was assigned as the far-field pressure boundary condition, enabling a coupled simulation framework of interior ballistics, exterior ballistics and flow field. The computational domain utilized a structured grid with refinement in the jet interaction region and near the ground to ensure calculation accuracy. The velocity and pressure fields obtained from numerical simulations were compared and validated against jet morphology, impingement height, and vortex core positions recorded by high-speed photography (2000 Hz). The flow field structure, pressure distribution, and thermal erosion behavior on the ground under different configurations are systematically revealed. The results indicate that the small-spacing nozzle arrangement triggers intense jet interference without ground effect participation, leading to a multi-peak and slow-recovery pressure evolution feature and substantially delays the flow field relaxation process. The coupling relationship between ground effect and jet interference is dominated by impingement height. At low impingement height conditions, the jet impinging on the ground induces intense reorganization and fragmentation of vortex structures, generating wall jets with velocities up to 960 m/s. Consequently, the peak ground surface temperatures reaches 1286.6 K with sustained high temperatures, which significantly elevates the risk of rail ablation. Conversely, a high impingement height effectively suppresses the ground effect, resulting in a more homogeneous and stable flow field structure. In this case, the peak ground temperature reduced by approximately 65% and maximum velocity reduced by 58%, significantly mitigating ablation risk. The initial phase (0-8 m) of the rocket sled is identified as the critical region subjected to the most severe thermomechanical loads. During this stage, the average acceleration reaches 832.7 m/s2, and the specific action time per unit distance is prolonged to 1.84 ms/m. Coupled with the transient complex flow field, this constitutes an extremely high risk for rail ablation. The numerical simulation results show excellent agreement with high-speed photographic experimental data regarding flow field morphology, impingement height, and vortex core positions, thereby validating the reliability of the established coupled model. This study elucidates the complex flow mechanisms of multi-nozzle parallel systems under strongly constrained conditions, and provids important theoretical foundations and design parameters for structural layout optimization and thermal protection design in high-acceleration, heavy-load rocket sled test systems.

, authors=Zhi QI1, Guohua WANG2, Xuean WU2, Quanfu SUN2, Baihang ZHOU3, Hao WANG1, Wenjun RUAN1, authorsList=Zhi QI, Guohua WANG, Xuean WU, Quanfu SUN, Baihang ZHOU, Hao WANG, Wenjun RUAN, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Hao WANG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Explosion and Shock Waves, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1315732110133018755, articleId=1315732103053033564, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, language=CN, title=品字形三喷管火箭橇射流-地效耦合机理及其布局效应, columnId=1315732103585710175, journalTitle=爆炸与冲击, columnName=实验技术与数值方法, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

为研究多发动机并联火箭橇的复杂尾流场特性,重点分析了喷管水平中心距和冲击高度对流动结构和地面效应的作用机制。通过对比大间距(s=7d)、小间距(s=1d)、低冲击高度(h=2d)及高冲击高度(h=5.5d)4种工况(s为喷管水平中心距,h为冲击高度,d为喷管出口直径,d=275 mm),系统揭示了不同构型下流场的结构、压力分布与对地面的热冲刷行为。结果表明:小间距布局在无地效时会诱发强烈的射流干涉,导致压力恢复呈现“多波峰-慢恢复”特性,显著延缓了流场的弛豫过程。地面效应与干涉的耦合作用由冲击高度主导:低冲击高度工况下,射流冲击地面诱发涡结构剧烈重组与破碎,形成速度高达960 m/s的壁面射流,地表温度峰值达1286.6 K且持续高温,轨道烧蚀风险显著增大;而高冲击高度可有效抑制地效作用,流场结构更趋均匀稳定,地表温度峰值降低约65%,最大流速降低58%,烧蚀风险显著缓解。火箭橇起始段(0~8 m)为热-力载荷最恶劣区间,该阶段平均加速度高达832.7 m/s2且单位距离作用时间长为1.84 ms/m,与瞬态复杂流场耦合,构成了轨道烧蚀的极高风险。数值模拟结果与高速摄影试验结果在流场形态、冲击高度及涡核位置等方面高度吻合,验证了所建立的“内弹道-外弹道-流场”耦合模型的可靠性。

, authors=齐治1, 王国华2, 武学安2, 孙全福2, 周柏航3, 王浩1, 阮文俊1, authorsList=齐治, 王国华, 武学安, 孙全福, 周柏航, 王浩, 阮文俊, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=王浩, authorNote=

齐治(1987- ),男,博士研究生,

, correspAuthorsNote=
王浩(1961- ),男,博士,研究员,
, copyrightStatement=版权所有©《爆炸与冲击》编辑部 2026, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=RsNRbG8rXKd+45aLwUlhEQ==, magXml=YrZGFECCpPlIrmuQLzPiUg==, pdfUrl=null, pdf=oLFUvUk4GHOHeAwSIMF70Q==, pdfFileSize=7147877, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=DDm7Z8W4OtEP56h2Nc+STQ==, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=D7D9PcHFXDjsuQSv+S/67w==, mapNumber=null, fund=null)}, authors=[Author(id=1315732110636335246, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, articleId=1315732103053033564, orderNo=0, firstName=null, middleName=null, lastName=null, nameCn=null, orcid=null, stid=null, country=null, authorPic=null, dead=0, email=nbqi@163.com, emailSecond=null, emailThird=null, correspondingAuthor=0, authorType=1, ext={EN=AuthorExt(id=1315732110711832720, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, articleId=1315732103053033564, authorId=1315732110636335246, language=EN, stringName=Zhi QI, firstName=Zhi, middleName=null, lastName=QI, prefix=null, suffix=null, authorComment=null, nameInitials=null, affiliation=null, department=null, xref=1, address=1School of Energy and Power Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, Jiangsu, China, bio=null, bioImg=null, bioContent=null, aboutCorrespAuthor=null), CN=AuthorExt(id=1315732110774747281, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, articleId=1315732103053033564, authorId=1315732110636335246, language=CN, stringName=齐治, firstName=null, middleName=null, lastName=null, prefix=null, suffix=null, authorComment=null, nameInitials=null, affiliation=null, department=null, xref=1, address=1南京理工大学能源与动力工程学院,江苏 南京 210094, bio={"content":"

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Beijing: Tsinghua University Press, 2004: 39–40., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1315732123760312575, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, articleId=1315732103053033564, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[17], rfOrder=25, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=ANDERSON J D JR. Modern compressible flow: with historical perspective [M]. 3rd ed. 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journalId=1315122079294652549, articleId=1315732103053033564, language=EN, label=Fig.16, caption=Comparison of jet flow field patterns between numerical simulation and high-speed experiment, figureFileSmall=B8j3yLK3Ps8QlHuPTsjm7w==, figureFileBig=uCQVbn9pD3oHJrS5oBibsg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1315732118999777497, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, articleId=1315732103053033564, language=CN, label=图16, caption=数值模拟与试验高速摄影射流形态对比, figureFileSmall=B8j3yLK3Ps8QlHuPTsjm7w==, figureFileBig=uCQVbn9pD3oHJrS5oBibsg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1315732119104635098, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, articleId=1315732103053033564, language=EN, label=Tab.1, caption=

Segment travel data for rocket sled vehicle

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
橇车行程/m时间/s区间初速度/(m·s−1)区间末速度/(m·s−1)平均加速度/(m·s−2)
0~80.098 0.00 81.63832.7
>8~160.074 81.63108.11357.8
>16~240.063108.11126.98299.2
︙︙︙︙︙
>112~1200.033246.15250.00116.7
), ArticleFig(id=1315732119226269915, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, articleId=1315732103053033564, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

火箭橇橇车分段行程数据

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
橇车行程/m时间/s区间初速度/(m·s−1)区间末速度/(m·s−1)平均加速度/(m·s−2)
0~80.098 0.00 81.63832.7
>8~160.074 81.63108.11357.8
>16~240.063108.11126.98299.2
︙︙︙︙︙
>112~1200.033246.15250.00116.7
), ArticleFig(id=1315732119326933212, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, articleId=1315732103053033564, language=EN, label=Tab.2, caption=

Working condition parameters of numerical simulation

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
工况编号地面存在性s/dh/d
1无7−
2无1−
3有12
4有15.5
), ArticleFig(id=1315732119444373725, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, articleId=1315732103053033564, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

数值模拟工况参数

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
工况编号地面存在性s/dh/d
1无7−
2无1−
3有12
4有15.5
), ArticleFig(id=1315732119549231326, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, articleId=1315732103053033564, language=EN, label=Tab.3, caption=

Low-pressure zone area parameters for no-ground conditions

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
时刻/ms低压区面积/m2
工况1工况2
24.651.53
100.2330.300
600.4630.325
), ArticleFig(id=1315732119654088927, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, articleId=1315732103053033564, language=CN, label=表3, caption=

无地面工况低压区面积参数

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
时刻/ms低压区面积/m2
工况1工况2
24.651.53
100.2330.300
600.4630.325
), ArticleFig(id=1315732119779918048, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, articleId=1315732103053033564, language=EN, label=Tab.4, caption=

Axial momentum loss induced by jet interference

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
工况s/d时间/ms $ \dot{J} $/kN相对损失/%
172483.80(基准)
60748.7
212369.0−23.7
60740.4−1.1
), ArticleFig(id=1315732119876387041, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, articleId=1315732103053033564, language=CN, label=表4, caption=

射流干涉导致的轴向动量损失

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
工况s/d时间/ms $ \dot{J} $/kN相对损失/%
172483.80(基准)
60748.7
212369.0−23.7
60740.4−1.1
), ArticleFig(id=1315732119947690210, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, articleId=1315732103053033564, language=EN, label=Tab.5, caption=

Vorticity values at the vortex core of the jet front under different working conditions

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
工况时刻/ms上涡核涡量/s−1下涡核涡量/s−1涡量差值/s−1地表涡涡量/s−1
1.5507293604288−
21020472385338−
6024530055−
1.5508398004717−
3102381N/A23812604
60174N/A174450
1.5506193654304−
41020432400357−
60382N/A382665
), ArticleFig(id=1315732120002216163, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, articleId=1315732103053033564, language=CN, label=表5, caption=

不同工况射流前锋涡核位置涡量值

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
工况时刻/ms上涡核涡量/s−1下涡核涡量/s−1涡量差值/s−1地表涡涡量/s−1
1.5507293604288−
21020472385338−
6024530055−
1.5508398004717−
3102381N/A23812604
60174N/A174450
1.5506193654304−
41020432400357−
60382N/A382665
), ArticleFig(id=1315732120069325028, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, articleId=1315732103053033564, language=EN, label=Tab.6, caption=

Comparison of near-ground momentum flux at different impact heights

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
工况h/d总动量通量/MN基准通量/MN耗散于地面动量/MN
32.06.9992.4874.513
45.51.9294.3351.495
), ArticleFig(id=1315732120153211109, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, articleId=1315732103053033564, language=CN, label=表6, caption=

不同冲击高度下近地面区域动量通量对比

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
工况h/d总动量通量/MN基准通量/MN耗散于地面动量/MN
32.06.9992.4874.513
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品字形三喷管火箭橇射流-地效耦合机理及其布局效应
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齐治 1 , 王国华 2 , 武学安 2 , 孙全福 2 , 周柏航 3 , 王浩 1 , 阮文俊 1
爆炸与冲击 | 实验技术与数值方法 2026,46(9): 094101-1-094101-16
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爆炸与冲击 |实验技术与数值方法 2026 , 46 (9) : 094101-1 -094101-16
品字形三喷管火箭橇射流-地效耦合机理及其布局效应
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齐治1 , 王国华2, 武学安2, 孙全福2, 周柏航3, 王浩1 , 阮文俊1
作者信息
  • 1南京理工大学能源与动力工程学院,江苏 南京 210094
  • 2中国兵器工业集团航空弹药研究院有限公司,黑龙江 哈尔滨 150010
  • 3中国工程物理研究院流体物理研究所,四川 绵阳 621999
通讯作者:
王浩(1961- ),男,博士,研究员,
作者简介:

齐治(1987- ),男,博士研究生,

Coupling mechanism between jet and ground effect for a triangular three-nozzle rocket-sled and its layout effects
Zhi QI1 , Guohua WANG2, Xuean WU2, Quanfu SUN2, Baihang ZHOU3, Hao WANG1 , Wenjun RUAN1
Affiliations
  • 1School of Energy and Power Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, Jiangsu, China
  • 2NORINCO Group Air Ammunition Research Institute Co., Ltd., Harbin 150010, Heilongjiang, China
  • 3Institute of Fluid Physics, China Academy of Engineering Physics, Mianyang 621999, Sichuan, China
出版时间: 2026-09-05 doi: 10.11883/bzycj-2025-0308
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为研究多发动机并联火箭橇的复杂尾流场特性,重点分析了喷管水平中心距和冲击高度对流动结构和地面效应的作用机制。通过对比大间距(s=7d)、小间距(s=1d)、低冲击高度(h=2d)及高冲击高度(h=5.5d)4种工况(s为喷管水平中心距,h为冲击高度,d为喷管出口直径,d=275 mm),系统揭示了不同构型下流场的结构、压力分布与对地面的热冲刷行为。结果表明:小间距布局在无地效时会诱发强烈的射流干涉,导致压力恢复呈现“多波峰-慢恢复”特性,显著延缓了流场的弛豫过程。地面效应与干涉的耦合作用由冲击高度主导:低冲击高度工况下,射流冲击地面诱发涡结构剧烈重组与破碎,形成速度高达960 m/s的壁面射流,地表温度峰值达1286.6 K且持续高温,轨道烧蚀风险显著增大;而高冲击高度可有效抑制地效作用,流场结构更趋均匀稳定,地表温度峰值降低约65%,最大流速降低58%,烧蚀风险显著缓解。火箭橇起始段(0~8 m)为热-力载荷最恶劣区间,该阶段平均加速度高达832.7 m/s2且单位距离作用时间长为1.84 ms/m,与瞬态复杂流场耦合,构成了轨道烧蚀的极高风险。数值模拟结果与高速摄影试验结果在流场形态、冲击高度及涡核位置等方面高度吻合,验证了所建立的“内弹道-外弹道-流场”耦合模型的可靠性。

火箭橇试验  /  火箭发动机  /  三维数值仿真  /  喷管流场  /  流场地面效应

To investigate the complex wake flow characteristics of multi-motor parallel rocket sleds, this study focuses on the mechanisms by which the nozzle horizontal spacing and the impingement height influence the flow structure and ground effect. A three-dimensional physical model was constructed for a dual-rail rocket sled system featuring three nozzles arranged in a triangular pyramid configuration. Four operating conditions were established, including large spacing (s=7d), small spacing (s=1d), low impingement height (h=2d), and high impingement height (h=5.5d). Here, s represents the horizontal center-to-center distance of the nozzles, h denotes the impact height, and d signifies the diameter of the nozzle outlet. The effects of nozzle center distance and impingement height on the flow field structure and ground effect were comparatively analyzed. Numerical simulations were performed using a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method based on the Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes equations, coupled with the Realizable k-ε turbulence model for transient solutions. The combustion chamber pressure-time curve derived from interior ballistic theory was applied to the nozzle inlet via a user-defined function (UDF). The sled velocity-time curve, determined from the exterior ballistic particle trajectory equation, was assigned as the far-field pressure boundary condition, enabling a coupled simulation framework of interior ballistics, exterior ballistics and flow field. The computational domain utilized a structured grid with refinement in the jet interaction region and near the ground to ensure calculation accuracy. The velocity and pressure fields obtained from numerical simulations were compared and validated against jet morphology, impingement height, and vortex core positions recorded by high-speed photography (2000 Hz). The flow field structure, pressure distribution, and thermal erosion behavior on the ground under different configurations are systematically revealed. The results indicate that the small-spacing nozzle arrangement triggers intense jet interference without ground effect participation, leading to a multi-peak and slow-recovery pressure evolution feature and substantially delays the flow field relaxation process. The coupling relationship between ground effect and jet interference is dominated by impingement height. At low impingement height conditions, the jet impinging on the ground induces intense reorganization and fragmentation of vortex structures, generating wall jets with velocities up to 960 m/s. Consequently, the peak ground surface temperatures reaches 1286.6 K with sustained high temperatures, which significantly elevates the risk of rail ablation. Conversely, a high impingement height effectively suppresses the ground effect, resulting in a more homogeneous and stable flow field structure. In this case, the peak ground temperature reduced by approximately 65% and maximum velocity reduced by 58%, significantly mitigating ablation risk. The initial phase (0-8 m) of the rocket sled is identified as the critical region subjected to the most severe thermomechanical loads. During this stage, the average acceleration reaches 832.7 m/s2, and the specific action time per unit distance is prolonged to 1.84 ms/m. Coupled with the transient complex flow field, this constitutes an extremely high risk for rail ablation. The numerical simulation results show excellent agreement with high-speed photographic experimental data regarding flow field morphology, impingement height, and vortex core positions, thereby validating the reliability of the established coupled model. This study elucidates the complex flow mechanisms of multi-nozzle parallel systems under strongly constrained conditions, and provids important theoretical foundations and design parameters for structural layout optimization and thermal protection design in high-acceleration, heavy-load rocket sled test systems.

rocket sled test  /  rocket motor  /  3D numerical simulation  /  nozzle flow field  /  ground effect of flow field
齐治, 王国华, 武学安, 孙全福, 周柏航, 王浩, 阮文俊. 品字形三喷管火箭橇射流-地效耦合机理及其布局效应. 爆炸与冲击, 2026 , 46 (9) : 094101-1 -094101-16 . DOI: 10.11883/bzycj-2025-0308
Zhi QI, Guohua WANG, Xuean WU, Quanfu SUN, Baihang ZHOU, Hao WANG, Wenjun RUAN. Coupling mechanism between jet and ground effect for a triangular three-nozzle rocket-sled and its layout effects[J]. Explosion and Shock Waves, 2026 , 46 (9) : 094101-1 -094101-16 . DOI: 10.11883/bzycj-2025-0308
火箭橇系统是地面高超音速动态试验的核心工具[1],通常采用单台或多台固体火箭发动机提供动力。在运行过程中,该系统紧贴地面高速运动,其流场环境同时受到自由来流和地面反射气流的影响,复杂性高。在这样的复杂流场环境下,确保火箭橇稳定运行即抑制振荡和避免削轨至关重要。对于追求大载荷、高加速度的试验目标,往往需要采用多台发动机并联的方式以大幅提升推力和燃气生成速率。
对火箭橇用火箭发动机尾流场特性及地面效应影响的研究,学者们主要以试验特性研究及数值模拟这2种形式为主[2-6]。余元元等[7]针对超声速火箭橇开展了数值模拟,分析了不同环境条件下的激波特征。周柏航等[8]对火箭橇动力系统尾流场的影响进行了理论和试验研究,获得了地面效应对双尾喷管流场分布的影响以及双尾喷管流场之间的相互作用。张俊等[9]对火箭发动机燃气射流流场进行了研究,得到了高速射流流场的分布规律。赵鹏刚等[10]以火箭橇气动特性计算精度为出发点,结合风洞试验方法,分析了地面效应对高速工作的火箭橇流场流动规律的影响。Wang等[11]研究了火箭橇在超声速流动条件下的激波/轨道耦合作用。王明清[12]对多喷管火箭橇系统流场中各喷管尾流场之间的相互作用影响进行了详细研究。然而,既有研究多聚焦于单发或对称双发布局,其模型与结论难以直接推广至本研究涉及的大载荷、高加速度、短行程工况下的三发动机品字形非对称布局。针对该布局所特有的多射流干涉、非对称涡系演化及其与地面效应的非线性耦合机制,现有研究仍较缺乏。
为系统揭示上述机理,本研究针对大载荷、高加速火箭橇试验的特定需求,设计一套呈品字形布局的3台固体火箭发动机并联动力系统,该设计不仅考虑火箭橇系统的动力需求,更充分考虑尾流场环境和强大的尾部射流对地面轨道及其他测试元件可能造成的冲刷和烧蚀问题。相较于单台火箭发动机和双发动机,这种品字形并联配置本身在结构上就具有上、下不对称性,这显著加剧了对地面环境的影响,因此,对地面效应的研究显得尤为重要。本文旨在系统研究双轨火箭橇品字形三喷管并联系统的射流特性及地面效应影响机制。结合试验观测与数值模拟,重点聚焦于多射流干涉与地效作用的耦合机制、流场结构演化特性及射流对地面的冲击效应,以阐明多喷管并联系统在强约束条件下的复杂流动规律,以期为高加速度、大载荷、短轨火箭橇的热防护设计与结构布局优化提供理论支撑与工程指导。
图1为带动力系统的橇车。试验用火箭橇系统主要由动力系统、配重体、橇靴、滑轨及止动装置等组成。其中,动力系统采用3台相同的固体火箭发动机,以2台下、1台上的方式呈品字形非对称并联布局。3台发动机的对称轴至地面的垂直距离,即冲击高度为h,设定为2d。d为喷管出口直径,d=275 mm。试验地面环境为常温、无风。
图2为测试系统布置示意图。如图2所示,考虑到单台高速摄像机视场宽度有限,在试验轨道段布置了4台高速摄像机(帧率为2000 Hz)分段拍摄,以便全程监测火箭橇的运行状态。同时,在轨道首尾端分别设置了2组靶网测速系统,用于精确测量橇车的实时速度。试验数据由上述系统同步采集,以确保数据的同步性和完整性,为后续流场特性和运动特性分析提供可靠保障。
图3为各时刻的高速摄像画面。点火后1.5 ms,3股射流在喷管出口处形成欠膨胀锥形结构。3.0 ms时,冲击波形成完整冠状结构,受地面边界层效应影响,火焰呈现明显的贴地扩展特征;至6.0 ms时射流边界逐渐清晰化,第1波节区出现显著可见光辐射,涡重组过程开始。这表明多股射流剪切层发生剧烈相互作用,火焰呈现贴地扩展程度更明显,且受地面限制,火焰前锋发生上卷;60.0 ms时,射流完全展开,其几何形状随橇车高速行进保持稳定。结合150.0、200.0 ms时刻的画面,可以看出,射流完全展开后,其宏观形态随橇车运动保持自相似性,不再发生显著变化。
表1为火箭橇橇车分段行程数据。为揭示火箭橇加速过程的非线性特征并识别高风险段,分析了4个关键区间的参数,即表1所列的0~8 m(起始段)、>8~16 m(早期加速段)、>16~24 m(中期加速段)及>112~120 m(高速滑行段)。结果表明,品字形三发动机布局火箭橇的加速过程具有明显的非线性衰减特征。测试数据表明,0~8 m起始段同时具备了全行程中最剧烈的动力学载荷和最长的持续作用时间。该段平均加速度a高达832.7 m/s2,分别是>8~16 m区段357.8 m/s2的2.3倍和>16~24 m区段299.5 m/s2的2.8倍。这意味着,固体火箭发动机产生了巨大的推力,形成了高能的燃气射流,构成了极高的瞬时冲击强度。与此同时,其单位距离作用时间为1.84 ms/m,约为末端>112~120 m高速区段0.32 ms/m的5.75倍,这导致了极端热力学载荷的持续作用时间最大化。上述极端载荷条件与该阶段观测到的射流汇交、涡重组等复杂的瞬态流场结构相结合,共同决定了起始段是轨道烧蚀风险极高、流场极不稳定的核心区域。因此,本文后续将重点对此阶段的流场特性与地效影响机制进行深入研究。
图4为火箭橇系统物理结构示意图。3台单喷管火箭发动机喷管呈品字形分布,喷管扩张比为5∶1,喷管出口直径d为275 mm。冲击高度h为3台发动机对称轴至地面的垂直距离,喷管水平中心距s为相邻两喷管出口中心点的水平距离。
以喷管出口直径d为特征尺度,对主要几何参数进行归一化。工况取值基于几何约束、地效强度与研究策略确定:发动机布局允许的最小物理间距s=1d,是射流干涉的极端工况,而s=7d保证射流在近场区相互独立发展,作为无干涉或弱干涉的基准工况;冲击高度h=2d是典型紧凑布局强地效工况,射流将提前触地效应显著,h=5.5d通过增大高度有效抑制地效,代表弱地效工况。
基于此,构建了如表2所示的4种工况。工况1~2用于揭示无地效时的射流干涉机制;工况3~4用于研究地效与干涉的耦合作用。
为精确模拟地面效应下的复杂流动特性,建立了三维计算模型,计算区域涵盖部分燃烧室、喷管及外部自由射流发展区以及足够大的侧向与下游空间,以确保能完整捕捉射流干扰现象。针对有地效工况,计算域底部设置了地面平面,其高度h根据工况定义。
图5为不同网格密度下工况3的射流轴线速度vj随传播距离lj的变化。图6给出了各工况网格结构示意图,为方便显示,网格已粗化显示。通过ICEM CFD软件将计算全域划分为结构化六面体网格。为了提高精度,在喷管出口附近、射流交汇区、地面冲击区和涡结构预期发展区域进行了网格局部加密。
网格无关性验证选取流场最复杂的工况3在60 ms时的流场状态作为验证对象。选取最小网格尺寸分别为4、2和1 mm,总网格数分别为650万、850万、1100万的3套方案。图5对比了3种网格方案下的轴线速度分布。随着最小网格尺寸从4 mm细化至1 mm,计算结果的最大差异仅为1.2%,数值随网格加密呈现出良好的单调收敛性,这反映了加密网格对减少数值耗散、更精确捕捉激波及剪切层的有效性。可以认为计算结果已不再依赖于网格尺度。出于对计算时间的考虑,选用总网格量为650万的网格方案进行计算,其结果是网格无关的,能够精确捕捉本研究关注的核心物理过程。工况1~4的六面体网格数量分别约为550万、500万、650万和700万。
采用三维可压缩雷诺平均Navier-Stokes方程组描述燃气射流动力学过程,其具体形式为质量守恒方程、动量守恒方程和能量守恒方程[13]。
为模拟火箭射流中存在的复杂湍流效应,采用可实现的k-ε湍流模型[14],该模型对射流、混合层及带有逆压梯度的流动具有较好的预测精度,已被广泛用于火箭喷流研究[8-9]。尽管其对强分离流的预测可能存在一定局限,但后续与试验结果的对比验证表明,该模型在当前研究中能够较好地捕捉核心流场特征,模型控制方程如下。
湍动能输运方程:
$ \frac{\partial \left(\rho k\right)}{\partial t}+\nabla \cdot \left(\rho k\boldsymbol{u}\right)= \nabla \cdot \left[\left(\mu +\frac{{\mu }_{{\mathrm{t}}}}{\sigma_{k}}\right)\nabla k\right]+ {G}_{k}+{G}_{{\mathrm{b}}}-\rho \varepsilon -{Y}_{{\mathrm{M}}} $
式中:$ \rho $为密度;$ k $为湍动能;t为时间;$ \boldsymbol{u} $为平均速度矢量;$ \mu $为分子动力黏度;$ {\mu }_{{\mathrm{t}}}=\rho {C}_{\mu }{k}^{2}/\varepsilon $为湍流黏度,其中,$ \varepsilon $为湍流耗散率,$ {C}_{\mu } $为变量是该模型的核心改变;$ {\sigma }_{k} $为湍流普朗特数,取标准值$ {\sigma }_{k} $=1.2;$ {G}_{k} $为由平均速度梯度产生的湍动能;$ {G}_{{\mathrm{b}}} $为耗散项;$ \rho \varepsilon $为湍动能耗散项;$ {Y}_{{\mathrm{M}}} $为可压缩性修正项。
耗散率输运方程:
$ \frac{\partial \left(\rho \varepsilon \right)}{\partial t}+\nabla \cdot \left(\rho \varepsilon \boldsymbol{u}\right)=\nabla \cdot \left[\left(\mu +\frac{{\mu }_{{\mathrm{t}}}}{{\sigma}_{\varepsilon }}\right)\nabla \varepsilon \right]+\rho {C}_{1}{S}_{\varepsilon }-\rho {C}_{2}\frac{{\varepsilon }^{2}}{k+\sqrt{\nu \varepsilon }}+{C}_{1\varepsilon }\frac{\varepsilon }{k}{C}_{3\varepsilon }{G}_{{\mathrm{b}}} $
式中:$ {C}_{1} = \max\left(0.43,\dfrac{\eta }{\eta +5}\right) $,$ \eta = S\dfrac{k}{\varepsilon } $;$ S = \sqrt{2{S}_{ij}{S}_{ij}} $,$ {S}_{ij} $为平均应变率张量;ν为运动黏度;$ {C}_{2}、{C}_{1\varepsilon }$和${C}_{3\varepsilon } $为模型常数,取标准值$ {C}_{2} = 1.9{,C}_{1\varepsilon } = 1.44,{C}_{3\varepsilon } = 0.8 $;$ {\sigma }_{\varepsilon } $为湍流普朗特数,取标准值$ {\sigma }_{\varepsilon } $=1.0。
本文所有数值计算均基于ANSYS Fluent软件平台进行。工质为双铅-2火药燃气,鉴于工质的可压缩性,密度模型采用理想气体状态方程,同时,考虑工质对温度的依赖性,动力黏度遵循Sutherland定律[15]进行计算。
采用基于压力修正的三维瞬态求解器,动量、湍动能、湍流耗散率、能量方程离散选用二阶迎风格式[16]。时间步长设置为1×10−5 s,最大迭代次数每步20次。收敛标准为所有方程残差降至10−6。
图6展示了边界条件位置。图7为火箭发动机内弹道计算所得的压力-时间(p-t)曲线。压力入口边界位于喷管入口。边界上的p-t数据由经典内弹道理论计算提供。该模型已通过既往研究的试验数据验证,能够较准确地预测本文所用固体火箭发动机的工作过程[8]。为将时变的内弹道压力数据准确地赋予喷管入口边界,本文编写了用户自定义函数(user-defined function, UDF)。该UDF根据求解器的物理时间,实时读取并插值图7所示的p-t曲线数据,并将对应的压力值动态施加于压力入口边界条件上,从而实现了燃烧室工作过程与外部流场计算的耦合。
图8为橇车运动的马赫数-时间(Ma-t)曲线。基于经典外弹道中质点动力学方程进行理论计算橇车运行速度,并将橇车运动的Ma-t曲线以UDF设置于压力远场边界。该方法通过设定与橇车运动方向相反、速度相等的来流,抵消了橇车运动的影响[8],从而简化了计算。远场压力取标准大气压,温度取常温,除上述特定设置外,其余所有边界均采用无滑移绝热固壁条件。
图9为弹道计算得到的橇车运动曲线与试验速度-行程(vs-ls)曲线对比。由于内弹道计算的推力预测是外弹道计算速度预测的直接输入,因此对外弹道结果的验证即构成对内弹道结果的间接验证。如图9所示,将外弹道计算得到的橇车速度-行程曲线与试验测试结果进行对比,两者在主要加速段吻合良好,理论计算速度最大值为266 m/s,而试验测量速度最大值为255 m/s。其原因可能是:随着速度的升高,理论计算采用的空气阻力系数小于实际值,导致高速阶段的预测加速度偏大,最终使得预测的最大速度高于试验值。最大速度偏差小于4.1%,在允许误差范围内,满足试验预期效果。该一致性不仅证明了外弹道模型的准确性,也反向验证了内弹道模型提供的压力数据的可靠性,从而证明了作为流场仿真输入条件的p-t和Ma-t曲线的可靠度。然而,需要指出,此验证主要确保运动学输入条件的准确性。在3.2节中,将通过对比试验与数值模拟的流场结构,进一步验证本模型在预测核心物理现象方面的能力。
无地面效应工况即为工况1(s=7d)与工况2(s=1d)的流场,揭示了单纯由喷管间距引起射流干涉的机制。图10展示了在喷管出口下游0.7 m截面的速度云图演化序列。
如图10所示,工况2射流在喷管出口下游0.7 m起始汇交。对于工况2,3股欠膨胀超声速射流的发展呈现典型三阶段特征[17]:在1.5 ms时刻,射流进入初始混合区,核心区最大速度为1537.8 m/s,剪切层最小速度为262 m/s,紧密间距导致射流边缘明显变形,预示汇交趋势;2.0 ms时刻相邻剪切层剧烈作用排挤卷吸流体,核心区受挤压形成1842.5 m/s的高速环形结构,混合层沿挤压边界以1161 m/s高速扩展;至2.5 ms时刻3股射流在近场完全合并为单一射流,对称中心形成新高速核心区,外围建立稳定边界层。相比之下,工况1射流独立发展,剪切层自由扩展,呈现典型弱干涉特征。
射流干涉不仅改变了速度场结构,更对压力场的空间分布产生了深刻的重塑作用。如图11所示的喷管出口下游0.7 m 截面压力云图序列可以看出:在2 ms时,工况1保持品字形独立低压核心结构,而工况2则因射流汇交融合为单一的、被环形高压区包围的低压核心。无地面工况低压区面积参数如表3所示,这种空间压缩效应可定量表征:此时工况2的低压区(p<0.1 MPa)面积仅为工况1的33%。上述结果明确表明,干涉效应强烈抑制了射流的自由膨胀,急剧压缩了有效流动区域。
图12展示了不同时刻单喷管轴线压力分布,对比了工况1(无干涉)与工况2(强干涉)下的压力演化特性。在2 ms的射流初始发展阶段,紧密间距的干涉效应已显著显现:工况2出口压力为0.164 MPa,较工况1的0.136 MPa提高21.0%,证实了近场射流间的相互挤压作用增强了局部背压;在出口下游0.41 m处,工况2形成0.085 MPa的局部高压,为工况1同位置压力0.033 MPa的2.58倍,表明射流剪切层已发生剧烈相互作用。此后,工况2的压力曲线在喷管出口下游0.55~0.83 m区间内发生明显波动并与工况1的平滑分布产生显著背离,这揭示了其流场结构经历了比自由射流更复杂的重组过程。在出口下游1.38 m处,工况2压力仍保持在0.308 MPa,显著高于工况1的0.221 MPa,进一步说明干涉效应在发展中持续增强并向下游传递。
在10 ms的中场发展阶段,工况2出口压力0.251 MPa仍高于工况1的0.231 MPa,但更关键的是其压力恢复路径呈现强烈的不稳定性:在喷管出口下游2.07 m处出现显著高压峰,压力为0.184 MPa,为工况1同位置压力0.055 MPa的3.35倍;此后,工况2压力在出口下游2.2~6.0 m区间经历大幅持续波动,呈现多个幅值递减的次生压力峰,表明强干涉导致流场结构失稳、能量耗散路径复杂化,延缓了压力恢复进程。
至60 ms的准稳态阶段,工况2出口压力0.345 MPa仍高于工况1的0.318 MPa。工况1经一大一小两波峰后在出口下游约4 m处恢复至环境压力,而工况2则经历多个压力波峰,直至出口下游11 m以远才逐渐恢复至环境压力。这一“多波峰-慢恢复”现象表明,射流干涉虽未改变平衡终态,但通过增强流场无序性与动力学不稳定性,显著降低了动能定向传递效率,从而延长了系统弛豫过程。
上述空间结构压缩与压力演化失稳,导致了推进效能的损失。首先,低压区面积的时序演变(表3)证实了有效流动区域的持续受限:在2 ms时,面积仅为基准工况的33%,显示出极度压缩;至10 ms时的重组期,面积短暂膨胀至基准工况的129%;而到了60 ms的准稳态下,面积仍只恢复至基准工况的70%。引入轴向的动量通量$ \dot{J} $来定量评估动能传递效率,其定义为:
$ \dot{J}=\iint _{A}\rho {u}^{2}\text{d}A $
式中:$ \rho $为流体密度,u为速度,A为计算截面面积。计算结果(表4)清晰显示,在干涉最剧烈的射流初始阶段(t=2 ms),工况2的动量通量较工况1骤降23.7%;而至准稳态(t=60 ms),损失则收窄至1.1%。这种损失的“时变性”定量表明,干涉的危害集中于起始瞬态阶段,这从能量传递的角度,有力地支持了前述“多波峰-慢恢复”将导致效率降低的结论,同时也与第1.2.2节试验中观测到的起始段载荷极端、烧蚀风险高的现象形成了很好的印证。
综上所述,小间距并联布局所诱发的射流干涉效应,其核心影响在于显著改变了流场的能量传递路径与空间结构。基于图11的压力云图与表3的低压区面积量化分析可知,干涉迫使射流在近场合并,并持续压缩了有效流动区域,在2 ms时面积仅为基准工况的33%。这一空间结构的劣化,正是导致轴线压力分布呈现如图12所示的“多波峰-慢恢复”特性的直接诱因。表4的轴向动量通量计算定量揭示了该过程对驱动效率的时变性影响:干涉在射流初始阶段造成了高达23.7%的瞬态动量损失,而在准稳态下的损失则较小,仅为1.1%。这表明,干涉虽未改变推力源,但通过增加能量耗散路径和劣化动能的定向输出效率,特别是在起始瞬态阶段引发了严重的能量损耗,从而为火箭橇起始段的高风险提供了直接的机理解释。因此,在设计时,在满足推力需求的前提下,应尽可能避免采用会引发强射流干涉的小间距布局,以期降低非必要的能量耗散,从而提升系统的综合效能。
上述分析揭示了喷管间距自身引起的射流干涉效应。然而,在实际火箭橇运行中,地面效应是与射流干涉耦合的关键因素,其影响更为复杂。
为系统揭示耦合流场的演化机理及其对推进效能的综合影响,在速度场分析基础上,进一步集成压力场、涡量场云图及定量数据,进行耦合分析。通过涡量场分析流场的旋转特性。涡量$ \boldsymbol{\omega } $定义为速度场v的旋度$ \boldsymbol{\omega }=\nabla \times \boldsymbol{v} $。其模$ \left| \boldsymbol{\omega }\right| $,即为文中所述的涡量值,物理上对应流体微团的旋转角速度大小。图13对比了不同冲击高度下有地效工况(工况3,h=2d;工况4,h=5.5d)与无地效工况(工况2)在4个特征时刻的轴向剖面多物理场(速度、压力和涡量)云图。其中,为突出射流场的压力特征,图中仅展示了外部射流区域的压力分布,喷管内部高压区已作省略处理。受品字形布局本身固有的几何非对称影响,即使无地面效应,流场也呈现出显著的非对称特性。
如图13所示,在1.5 ms时刻,流场特性出现显著分化。工况2射流自由汇交;工况3则因几何非对称性与地效的耦合作用,流场变形加剧,其射流底部触地,径向偏转形成速度约为510 m/s的壁面射流;此时,其压力场中的低压核心区因地面挤压而呈现扁平状,空间展布受限。工况4射流尚未触地,但已显示出地面引起的预压缩效应。射流充分发展至10 ms时,工况2完成汇交形成合并射流;工况3呈现典型强地效流场特征,表现为薄层壁面射流沿地面高速推进其速度约为700 m/s;工况4流态表现为弱地效结构与自由射流特征的叠加,此时射流已接触地面,但影响深度较浅。30 ms时刻是流场向准稳态过渡的关键阶段。工况2已发展为充分发展的自由湍流射流。工况3的壁面射流结构更加清晰和稳定,能量持续向地表集中。对于工况4,其流场演化至此时出现显著变化:其下涡核结构破碎并重组为典型的地表涡。此重组过程在同期涡量云图中表现为高涡量区域的集中与形态转变,而其压力场中的低压区范围出现与之对应的瞬时膨胀。这表明在高冲击高度下,地面效应已足够强,在流场发展的中期开始主导并重构涡系结构。进入准稳态阶段即60 ms时刻,工况2呈现充分发展的自由湍流射流形态。工况3的流场受地面强烈挤压,形成结构扁平的高速壁面射流,其压力场核心区同样被压制在近地面区域;工况4流场垂向扩展空间显著增大,形态更接近自由射流,但其底部仍可见明显的弯曲与扩散,表明地面约束效应虽减弱但仍持续作用。
为定量揭示地效对流场稳定性和对称性的影响机制,表5列出了1.5、10和60 ms等3个特征时刻射流前锋涡核位置的涡量值。图13以流线与“+”形式给出了涡核的位置。在1.5 ms时刻,无地面效应的工况2已表现出固有不对称性,其上涡量值为5072 s−1,下涡量值达9360 s−1,差值达4288 s−1。低冲击高度显著加剧了这一特性:工况3在相同时刻下涡量值升至9800 s−1,较其上涡量值5083 s−1的差值扩大至4717 s−1,差值增幅达9.6%;而工况4涡量差值为4304 s−1,更接近无地效状态。随着涡结构的演化,差异愈发显著。至10 ms时刻,工况3流场对称性彻底崩溃,其下涡核破碎重组为地表涡,涡量值达2604 s−1,而上涡核保持完整,涡量值为2381 s−1;工况4仍保持相对对称的上下涡对结构,上涡量值为2043 s−1,下涡量值为2400 s−1,差值仅为357 s−1。发展到60 ms准稳态时,工况3地表涡量值衰减至450 s−1,衰减率高达83%,其上涡量值降至174 s−1;工况4地表涡量值为665 s−1,强度仅为工况3的25.5%,其上涡量值保持382 s−1。各时段上下涡量差值始终满足工况3的最大、工况4的次之、工况2的最小的关系,这一规律明确证明冲击高度降低直接加剧涡结构强度失衡与对称性破坏。
流场结构的剧烈变化直接决定了其能量输运与耗散的路径。为定量评估地效耦合下的推进效能,近地面动量通量是最直接的指标。图14为近地面速度云图,近地面速度场演化进一步揭示了地效的影响。图14对比了不同冲击高度下工况3和4近地面速度场的演化过程。在射流冲击初期1.5 ms时刻,地表涡生成,工况3形成轴对称环形高速区,最大速度为384 m/s左右。至10 ms时刻,流场演化为典型马蹄形结构,最大速度增至957 m/s左右,外侧环绕速度低于300 m/s的低速回流区。发展至60 ms准稳态时,高速区呈现锥形冲击面形态,最大速度维持在960 m/s左右,此现象表明低冲击高度工况下能量持续向地表富集。相比之下,工况4在30 ms时刻地表涡生成,射流首次触地。至60 ms充分发展,最大速度始终低于400 m/s,较工况3在 60 ms时的速度降低将近58%。表6定量数据为此提供了确凿证据:在60 ms时,近地面0.1d高度处,强地效工况3的动量通量高达6.999 MN,其产生的动量损失4.513 MN是弱地效工况4的3倍。这直接证明,低冲击高度导致绝大部分射流动能无效地耗散于对地面的剧烈冲击中,构成了驱动效率损失的核心原因。
通过对4个特征时刻(1.5、10、30和60 ms)流场结构及定量数据的系统对比,揭示了地效与射流干涉耦合流场的动态演化过程:从初始冲击阶段,经历结构分化与重组过程,最终达到准稳态。研究表明,冲击高度是主导流场演化与能量耗散路径的关键参数。低冲击高(h=2d)诱发了“近场强耗散”机制,表现为射流提前触地形成壁面射流、涡结构快速耗散(衰减83%)导致了极高的近地动量通量与严重的有效动能损失。高冲击高度(h=5.5d)则表现为“远场周期性失稳”机制,通过延迟地效主导作用、维持更持久的涡活动,使近地冲击载荷大幅降低(速度降幅达58%),从而显著保全了推进效能。这一完整的演化规律与机理阐释,明确指出了将冲击高度提升至5.5d,是优化流场结构、减轻地面效应负面影响、从而提升火箭橇系统综合性能的关键设计途径,为工程设计提供了深入且直接的理论依据。
图15为火箭橇起始点处工况3(h=2d)和工况4(h=5.5d)工况的地表温度随行程ls的变化曲线。为研究射流冲击高度对轨道起始段的热载荷累积效应,在固定监测点即橇车发射点记录了工况3~4下地表温度随火箭橇行程的变化。从图15可以看出,射流冲击高度对局部热载荷的分布特性起决定性作用。以火箭橇行程0~8 m左右区间为例,工况3橇车行进0.84 m时,发射点温度骤升,源于射流前锋抵达监测点,地表温度峰值达1286.6 K,且橇车加速8.4 m后温度持续维持在高于1000 K,预示严重烧蚀风险;相比之下,工况4温度升高延迟至橇车行程1.24 m,源于射流冲击高度增加导致覆盖延迟,最高温度仅450 K,且无持续高温现象,烧蚀风险显著降低。工况3的最高温度比工况4高186%,且高温持续时间更长。因此,随着冲击高度的降低,地表烧蚀风险逐渐增大。
图16展示了不同时刻数值模拟流场形态与试验高速摄像结果的对比情况。图中的标注详细阐述了两者在燃气射流推进过程中的共同特征。从图16可以看出,在6 ms时,燃气流前锋汇交后,受到地面阻挡和挤压,气流前锋被抬升并发生折转反卷。仿真得到的射流冲击地面处射流高度h为1.1 m,高速摄像记录的此处高度也为1.1 m左右,涡旋出现的位置距喷管出口处均为3 m左右。到30 ms时,燃气流前锋继续沿地面推进,其下部受到地面的阻挡与挤压,因而其下部高速沿地面推进,而上部的卷吸涡旋则更加明显。仿真得到的射流冲击地面处射流高度h仍为1.1 m左右,与高速摄像读取的数据一致;同时,涡旋出现的位置距喷管出口处约为8.2 m。无论是仿真还是高速摄影试验结果,其射流冲击地面的位置的射流高度及射流前锋涡旋位置均表现出良好一致性。在50 ms时,尽管燃气流前锋上部的反卷特征有所减弱,其下方依然保持高速推进状态,这一特点通过高速摄像得到清晰捕捉。此外,火焰区域的长度和宽度在仿真与试验结果中也基本一致。由此可见,数值模拟结果与试验结果之间具有较高的一致性,验证了计算模型的可靠性及试验方法的有效性。
基于数值模拟与试验验证,研究了双轨火箭橇品字形三台单喷管火箭发动机并联系统的射流特性及地面效应影响,得到以下结论。
(1)小间距并联布局会引发强烈的射流干涉效应,其本质是流场多尺度不稳定结构的产生与强化。干涉导致射流在近场被迫合并,显著压缩了有效流动区域(在2 ms时,低压区面积仅为无干涉工况的33%)。该物理过程具体表现为在无地效条件下的压力恢复过程中的“多波峰-慢恢复”现象:在2 ms时,干涉工况(工况2)喷管出口压力较无干涉工况(工况1)高出21%;在喷管出口下游0.41 m处形成局部高压,为无干涉工况的2.58倍;更重要的是,轴向动量通量计算揭示,此干涉效应在射流起始阶段造成了高达23.7%的瞬态动量损失。这表明流场能量在反复的压缩-膨胀中被耗散,形成了多个依次衰减的准周期性压力波峰,显著延缓了流场达到平衡的进程,动能定向传递效率大幅降低。从能量耗散路径角度揭示的“多波峰-慢恢复”机制,是干涉流场区别于自由射流的本质特征。
(2)冲击高度是主导流场演化路径与最终结构的决定性因素。低冲击高度(h=2d)条件下,射流提前触地引发涡结构剧烈重组与破碎,其地表涡强度在10 ms至60 ms间衰减率达83%,对称性彻底破坏,形成高速壁面射流。并导致极大的近地面动量通量(6.999 MN),表明能量剧烈耗散于地面冲击。而高冲击高度(h=5.5d)则呈现独特的演化路径:其地效强度在中期即30 ms附近开始主导涡系重组,最终形成一种稳定的、兼具自由射流与地效特征的非对称结构。该工况下地表最大温度峰值降低约65%,近地面最大流速降低58%,烧蚀风险得以显著缓解。
(3)火箭橇运行起始段(0~8 m)是热-力载荷恶劣、烧蚀风险极高的关键区间。该阶段平均加速度高达832.7 m/s2,分别是中后段加速度的2.3~2.8倍,产生了极大的瞬时冲击强度;同时,其单位距离作用时间为1.84 ms/m是高速段的5.75倍,导致极端热力学载荷的持续作用时间最大化。该极端载荷条件与此阶段观测到的射流汇交、涡重组等复杂的瞬态流场结构相结合,共同决定了起始段是轨道烧蚀风险的高风险区域。
(4)本研究为工程设计提供了明确的参数依据。将冲击高度增大至5.5d可有效将流场从“近场强耗散”模式转变为“远场周期性失稳”模式,从而改善地表热环境与流动载荷。因此,在系统设计允许的范围内,将冲击高度h设定为大于或等于5.5d作为高加速度、大载荷火箭橇试验台热防护设计的一个关键基准参数,以在性能与安全之间取得最佳平衡。
(5)所构建的耦合数值模型具有较高的工程可靠性。本文建立的“内弹道-外弹道-流场”耦合模型通过了试验验证,橇车速度的计算误差小于4.1%,数值模拟获得的射流形态、冲击高度及涡核位置与高速摄像试验结果高度吻合,可为大载荷火箭橇系统工程设计提供有效的预测工具。
本研究采用了纯气相模拟,未考虑固体推进剂燃气中可能存在的凝相颗粒对轨道烧蚀的影响,而颗粒的冲刷和沉积是实际烧蚀过程中的重要因素。此外,仿真未涉及高温燃气可能存在的复杂有限速率化学反应动力学过程。对多喷管之间更细致的非定常相互作用机理,例如压力脉动的频谱特性,也有待进一步分析。这些将是未来研究工作中需要深入探讨的重要方向。

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doi: 10.11883/bzycj-2025-0308
  • 接收时间:2025-09-23
  • 首发时间:2026-10-10
  • 出版时间:2026-09-05
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  • 收稿日期:2025-09-23
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作者信息
    1南京理工大学能源与动力工程学院,江苏 南京 210094
    2中国兵器工业集团航空弹药研究院有限公司,黑龙江 哈尔滨 150010
    3中国工程物理研究院流体物理研究所,四川 绵阳 621999

通讯作者:

王浩(1961- ),男,博士,研究员,
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)
属
Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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