Article(id=1315732119884771825, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, issueId=1315732078327616225, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.11883/bzycj-2025-0042, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1739462400000, receivedDateStr=2025-02-14, revisedDate=1743436800000, revisedDateStr=2025-04-01, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1791624582500, onlineDateStr=2026-10-10, pubDate=1788537600000, pubDateStr=2026-09-05, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1791624582500, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-10-10, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1791624582500, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1791624582500, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1315732078327616225, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, year='2026', volume='46', issue='9', pageStart='091001-1', pageEnd='095402-10', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1788537600000', pubDateStr='2026-09-05', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1791624572593, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1791624783658, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1315732963703247483, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, issueId=1315732078327616225, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1315732963703247484, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, issueId=1315732078327616225, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=094102-1, endPage=094102-10, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1315732120249676274, articleId=1315732119884771825, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, language=EN, title=Uncertainty quantification of shock to detonation experiment of PBX9502 based on probability learning on manifold, columnId=1315732103220805725, journalTitle=Explosion and Shock Waves, columnName=Experimental Techniques & Numerical Methods, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

To address the challenges posed by insufficient statistical sampling density and inherent irreducible uncertainties in multi-physical property detonation experiments, probability learning on manifold (PLoM) involving diffusion map and Itô projection sampling are used to generate sufficient dataset satisfying the detonation physical mechanism and therefore, to fulfill the uncertainty quantification of experiment. Firstly, scale transformation is implemented on the experimental data with multi-physical asset of insensitive high explosive PBX9502. The training set is obtained through the normalization of the scale matrix by means of principal component analysis. Secondly, an improved high-dimensional Gaussian kernel density estimation is utilized to calibrate the probability measure of the random matrix associated with the training dataset. Diffusion map is used to deduce the nonlinear manifold based on the training dataset. Sampling on the manifold is fulfilled through Itô-MCMC generator defined by a dissipative Hamilton system driven by the Wiener process. Finally, the learning set is obtained via inverse transformation. The result shows that the Gaussian statistics obtained from random numbers generated by PLoM coincide with the statistical information of density of PBX9502 calibrated in the literature. Furthermore, the double logarithm model related to the distance to detonation and initial impact stress is constructed through the data generated. It also holds for the relationship between the time of detonation and initial shock stress. Fitting precision of the curve is almost equivalent to the accuracy of result in literature, however the cost is negligible. More accurate digital test result is obtained through the learning and processing of existing experimental data via PLoM. The PLoM method demonstrates strong generalization capability, enabling its extension to detonation experiments with various types of explosive.

, authors=Xiao LIANG1, Yanfei ZHAO1, Ruili WANG2, 3, authorsList=Xiao LIANG, Yanfei ZHAO, Ruili WANG, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=null, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Explosion and Shock Waves, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1315732123139551743, articleId=1315732119884771825, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, language=CN, title=基于流形上概率学习的PBX9502冲击起爆试验不确定度量化, columnId=1315732103585710175, journalTitle=爆炸与冲击, columnName=实验技术与数值方法, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

为了解决样本容量稀疏和不确定度对多物理属性爆轰试验研究造成的障碍,采用流形上的概率学习(probability learning on manifold, PLoM)方法通过结合耗散映射与Itô投影采样技术,生成满足爆轰机理的丰富样本,进而实现试验不确定度量化。首先,对具有多物理属性的高能钝感炸药PBX9502的试验样本进行尺度变换。接着利用主成分分析对尺度矩阵规范化处理,构造训练集。然后,采用改进的多维Gauss核密度估计法,标定训练集所对应随机矩阵的概率测度。同时,利用耗散映射提取基于训练集的非线性流形。Wiener过程驱动的耗散Hamilton系统定义的Itô-MCMC随机生成器用于在流形上采样。最后,使用逆变换导出学习集的样本。结果表明,PLoM生成的随机数的Gauss统计量与文献标定的PBX9502的密度的统计信息相吻合。此外,该方法成功导出爆轰距离和爆轰时间与冲击应力服从双对数模型关系,曲线拟合的精度与文献成果相当,而成本可以忽略不计。PLoM通过对已有试验数据的学习与处理,获得更高精度的数字试验结果。PLoM方法泛化能力强,可推广到其他类型炸药的爆轰试验。

, authors=梁霄1, 赵延菲1, 王瑞利2, 3, authorsList=梁霄, 赵延菲, 王瑞利, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=null, authorNote=

梁霄(1984- ),男,博士,副教授,

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Initiation experimental data of PBX9502[11]

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ρ/(g·cm−3)u/(km·s−1)p/GPa $x^{*} $/mm $t^{*} $/μsρ/(g·cm−3)u/(km·s−1)p/GPa $x^{*} $/mm $t^{*} $/μs
1.8892.34910.6511.822.221.8902.42611.1611.722.18
1.8892.49311.629.171.671.8932.47411.4911.312.10
1.8882.76613.556.011.041.8902.54611.989.441.75
1.8872.86014.244.190.741.8912.75513.476.881.22
1.8863.11816.223.680.611.8892.75913.507.581.36
1.8862.33410.5512.412.381.8892.35110.6712.782.45
1.8882.59912.358.281.481.8912.63612.618.301.48
1.8872.79813.786.261.101.8892.75613.476.361.12
1.8872.96015.004.530.771.8892.95914.994.770.81
1.8902.39410.9514.502.75
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PBX9502起爆试验数据[11]

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ρ/(g·cm−3)u/(km·s−1)p/GPa $x^{*} $/mm $t^{*} $/μsρ/(g·cm−3)u/(km·s−1)p/GPa $x^{*} $/mm $t^{*} $/μs
1.8892.34910.6511.822.221.8902.42611.1611.722.18
1.8892.49311.629.171.671.8932.47411.4911.312.10
1.8882.76613.556.011.041.8902.54611.989.441.75
1.8872.86014.244.190.741.8912.75513.476.881.22
1.8863.11816.223.680.611.8892.75913.507.581.36
1.8862.33410.5512.412.381.8892.35110.6712.782.45
1.8882.59912.358.281.481.8912.63612.618.301.48
1.8872.79813.786.261.101.8892.75613.476.361.12
1.8872.96015.004.530.771.8892.95914.994.770.81
1.8902.39410.9514.502.75
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Gaussian statistical information of physical quantity

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物理量期望标准差置信区间下限置信区间上限
ρ/(g·cm−3)1.88880.00181.88581.8930
u/(km·s−1)2.65200.23442.26683.1446
p/GPa12.77411.686610.165916.1521
$x^{*} $/mm8.45813.35193.343715.2677
$t^{*} $/μs1.54670.67250.55462.9207
), ArticleFig(id=1315732128797667891, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, articleId=1315732119884771825, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

物理量的Gauss统计信息

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物理量期望标准差置信区间下限置信区间上限
ρ/(g·cm−3)1.88880.00181.88581.8930
u/(km·s−1)2.65200.23442.26683.1446
p/GPa12.77411.686610.165916.1521
$x^{*} $/mm8.45813.35193.343715.2677
$t^{*} $/μs1.54670.67250.55462.9207
), ArticleFig(id=1315732128864776756, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, articleId=1315732119884771825, language=EN, label=Tab.3, caption=

Gaussian statistics of initial density of PBX9502

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项目本文结果LANL标定[11]孙承纬标定[1]
期望1.88881.8901.895
标准差0.00180.005<0.01
), ArticleFig(id=1315732128931885621, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1315122079294652549, articleId=1315732119884771825, language=CN, label=表3, caption=

PBX9502的初始密度的Gauss统计量

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
项目本文结果LANL标定[11]孙承纬标定[1]
期望1.88881.8901.895
标准差0.00180.005<0.01
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基于流形上概率学习的PBX9502冲击起爆试验不确定度量化
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梁霄 1 , 赵延菲 1 , 王瑞利 2, 3
爆炸与冲击 | 实验技术与数值方法 2026,46(9): 094102-1-094102-10
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爆炸与冲击 |实验技术与数值方法 2026 , 46 (9) : 094102-1 -094102-10
基于流形上概率学习的PBX9502冲击起爆试验不确定度量化
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梁霄(1984- ),男,博士,副教授,

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梁霄1 , 赵延菲1, 王瑞利2, 3
作者信息
  • 1山东科技大学数学与系统科学学院,山东 青岛 266590
  • 2河南省科学院数学研究所,河南 郑州 450052
  • 3北京应用物理与计算数学研究所,北京 100094
作者简介:

梁霄(1984- ),男,博士,副教授,

Uncertainty quantification of shock to detonation experiment of PBX9502 based on probability learning on manifold
Xiao LIANG1 , Yanfei ZHAO1, Ruili WANG2, 3
Affiliations
  • 1School of Mathematics and System Science, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266590, Shandong, China
  • 2Institute of Mathematics, Henan Academy of Sciences, Zhengzhou 450052, Henan, China
  • 3Beijing Institute of Applied Physics and Computational Mathematics, Beijing 100094, China
出版时间: 2026-09-05 doi: 10.11883/bzycj-2025-0042
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为了解决样本容量稀疏和不确定度对多物理属性爆轰试验研究造成的障碍,采用流形上的概率学习(probability learning on manifold, PLoM)方法通过结合耗散映射与Itô投影采样技术,生成满足爆轰机理的丰富样本,进而实现试验不确定度量化。首先,对具有多物理属性的高能钝感炸药PBX9502的试验样本进行尺度变换。接着利用主成分分析对尺度矩阵规范化处理,构造训练集。然后,采用改进的多维Gauss核密度估计法,标定训练集所对应随机矩阵的概率测度。同时,利用耗散映射提取基于训练集的非线性流形。Wiener过程驱动的耗散Hamilton系统定义的Itô-MCMC随机生成器用于在流形上采样。最后,使用逆变换导出学习集的样本。结果表明,PLoM生成的随机数的Gauss统计量与文献标定的PBX9502的密度的统计信息相吻合。此外,该方法成功导出爆轰距离和爆轰时间与冲击应力服从双对数模型关系,曲线拟合的精度与文献成果相当,而成本可以忽略不计。PLoM通过对已有试验数据的学习与处理,获得更高精度的数字试验结果。PLoM方法泛化能力强,可推广到其他类型炸药的爆轰试验。

流形上的概率学习  /  不确定度量化  /  小样本  /  爆轰  /  试验不确定度

To address the challenges posed by insufficient statistical sampling density and inherent irreducible uncertainties in multi-physical property detonation experiments, probability learning on manifold (PLoM) involving diffusion map and Itô projection sampling are used to generate sufficient dataset satisfying the detonation physical mechanism and therefore, to fulfill the uncertainty quantification of experiment. Firstly, scale transformation is implemented on the experimental data with multi-physical asset of insensitive high explosive PBX9502. The training set is obtained through the normalization of the scale matrix by means of principal component analysis. Secondly, an improved high-dimensional Gaussian kernel density estimation is utilized to calibrate the probability measure of the random matrix associated with the training dataset. Diffusion map is used to deduce the nonlinear manifold based on the training dataset. Sampling on the manifold is fulfilled through Itô-MCMC generator defined by a dissipative Hamilton system driven by the Wiener process. Finally, the learning set is obtained via inverse transformation. The result shows that the Gaussian statistics obtained from random numbers generated by PLoM coincide with the statistical information of density of PBX9502 calibrated in the literature. Furthermore, the double logarithm model related to the distance to detonation and initial impact stress is constructed through the data generated. It also holds for the relationship between the time of detonation and initial shock stress. Fitting precision of the curve is almost equivalent to the accuracy of result in literature, however the cost is negligible. More accurate digital test result is obtained through the learning and processing of existing experimental data via PLoM. The PLoM method demonstrates strong generalization capability, enabling its extension to detonation experiments with various types of explosive.

probability learning on manifold  /  uncertainty quantification  /  small sample size  /  detonation  /  experimental uncertainty
梁霄, 赵延菲, 王瑞利. 基于流形上概率学习的PBX9502冲击起爆试验不确定度量化. 爆炸与冲击, 2026 , 46 (9) : 094102-1 -094102-10 . DOI: 10.11883/bzycj-2025-0042
Xiao LIANG, Yanfei ZHAO, Ruili WANG. Uncertainty quantification of shock to detonation experiment of PBX9502 based on probability learning on manifold[J]. Explosion and Shock Waves, 2026 , 46 (9) : 094102-1 -094102-10 . DOI: 10.11883/bzycj-2025-0042
理论分析、建模与仿真和物理试验是爆轰研究的三大范式[1-6]。物理试验预测能力最强,但受限于爆轰试验流程的复杂性和仪器仪表的精密度,导致试验数据样本容量稀疏。此外,部分炸药样品制备昂贵,又进一步限制了试验样本容量。尽可能的利用有限的试验数据导出一般物理规律,是爆轰研究必然面对的挑战[7-11]。
爆轰精密化测试和观测能力不足,操作环境参数的波动性(如室温在[15,25] °C变动)以及含能材料加工过程中引入的不确定性,使得试验数据在标定过程中无法摆脱不确定因素的干扰。一方面,不确定度的扰动会增大物理量标定值的离散程度,甚至导致试验数据异常,增加爆轰机理提炼难度。另一方面,物理量标定值的微小浮动,在非线性交互作用下被不断放大,导致建模与仿真结果大幅偏离预测“真值”,最终引发不可预期的后果。不确定度的存在令决策者对建模与仿真结果的可靠性产生质疑,不精确的仿真结果可能导致重大决策失误乃至工程事故。总之,若无法准确量化物理试验中的不确定度,不仅影响试验的预测能力,还会对理论分析和建模与仿真等研究范式产生负面影响。
因此,采用合适的数理工具实现爆轰试验的不确定度量化(uncertainty quantification, UQ),不仅能提高试验的预测能力,还能增强决策者使用建模与仿真结果的信心。迄今为止,爆轰领域的UQ研究仍相对匮乏[2-7, 12-17]。爆轰UQ研究主要依赖于Monte Carlo方法,研究领域仍集中在仿真不确定度,尤其侧重于状态方程中参数的统计标定。然而,试验不确定度方面的UQ研究相对罕见。特别是,运用概率统计方法定量表征多物理属性小样本试验数据的不确定度,未见报道。
小样本问题是爆轰试验UQ研究面临的主要障碍,单纯依靠增加物理试验次数获取物理量的精确统计信息并不现实。试验不确定度的研究方法依然有限,且主观性因素较强。戴诚达等[18]和刘俊明等[19]首先给出易于测量的试验样品的初始密度、药柱厚度和冲击波在样品中的走时等物理量的不确定度,然后运用不确定度传递律计算标准不确定度和合成不确定度,间接标定不易测量物理量的置信区间。但此方法的局限性在于,无法导出物理量的概率结构。若想导出物理量的概率结构,自然的想法是使用机器学习方法扩大样本容量。但难点在于待标定物理量的概率分布函数未知,甚至有界支集(support set)未知。另外,试验样本点通常带有多个物理属性,如一次试验同时测量粒子速度和爆速。但是如何保证生成的样本点仍保持不同属性之间的函数关系?
Soize等[20]提出的流形上的概率学习(probability learning on manifold, PLoM)是处理高维小样本数据的有力工具。PLoM本质上属于机器学习,对外部噪声具有很强的鲁棒性。PLoM能生成丰富的、品质与试验结果类似的数据,同时保持了不同物理属性之间的函数关系。与神经网络等人工智能相比,PLoM仅需少量训练集样本,且计算成本相较于物理试验可以忽略不计。该方法已经应用于飞机喷嘴、高铁、高超音速冲压燃烧发动机、失协叶片等重要工程领域[21-24]。综上所述,鉴于PLoM在处理多物理属性的小样本试验数据方面具有显著优势,成为爆轰试验UQ研究的潜在理想工具,本文针对冲击起爆试验数据稀疏的特点,利用PLoM生成保持物理结构的电子试验数据,推导冲击应力和爆轰时间以及冲击应力和爆轰距离的函数关系,丰富爆轰理论成果。
试验研究对象为高能钝感炸药PBX9502,其组分为TATB(质量分数95%)、Kel-F(质量分数5%)。表1列出了在室温条件([21,25] °C)下进行起爆试验的数据,数据来源于LANL二级轻气炮试验[11]。每次试验同步采集并标定了5个物理属性参数。反应原理为:非均质高能炸药受到足够强大的冲击应力后,会发生冲击转爆轰[11]。
将表1看作多维随机向量$ \boldsymbol{x}=(\rho ,u,p,{x}^{*},{t}^{*}) $的nd个采样点$ {\boldsymbol{x}}_{i}=({\rho }_{i},{u}_{i},{p}_{i},x_{i}^{*},t_{i}^{*}) $的集合(其中,$ i=1,\cdots ,{n}_{\text{d}} $),记作$ {\mathcal{D}}_{\text{train}}(\boldsymbol{x})=\{({\rho }_{i},{u}_{i},{p}_{i},x_{i}^{*},t_{i}^{*})\in {\mathbb{R}}^{N}|i=1,2,\cdots ,{n}_{\text{d}}\} $。起爆时间$t^{*} $和起爆距离$x^{*} $反映了冲击波转变为爆轰的时间和距离,是描述高能炸药感度的重要指标。随机向量x的维数为N=5,即试验数据具备5个物理属性。采样点的数量为nd=19。虽然$ {\mathcal{D}}_{\text{train}}(\boldsymbol{x}) $可以认为是高维随机向量的抽样,但随机向量x的概率密度函数(probability density function, PDF)未知。进一步,假设试验数据集中在$ {\mathbb{R}}^{5} $中的某个流形上,但是流形的结构未知。$ {\mathcal{D}}_{\text{train}}(\boldsymbol{x}) $还可以用训练集矩阵$ {\boldsymbol{X}}_{\text{d}}={[{x_{ij}^{\text{d}}}]}_{{{n}_{\text{d}}}\times N}\in {\mathbb{R}}^{{{n}_{\text{d}}}\times N} $表示,按行分块为$ {\boldsymbol{x}}^{1},{\boldsymbol{x}}^{2},\cdots ,{\boldsymbol{x}}^{{{n}_{\text{d}}}} $。
首先,对训练集矩阵Xd施加尺度变换得到尺度矩阵$ \tilde{\boldsymbol{X}}={[{{\tilde{x}}_{ij}}]}_{{{n}_{\rm d}}\times N} $:
$ {\tilde{x}}_{ij}=\frac{x_{ij}^{\text{d}}-x_{i1}^{\text{d}}\wedge x_{i2}^{\text{d}}\wedge \cdots \wedge x_{iN}^{\text{d}}}{x_{i1}^{\text{d}}\vee x_{i2}^{\text{d}}\vee \cdots \vee x_{iN}^{\text{d}}-x_{i1}^{\text{d}}\wedge x_{i2}^{\text{d}}\wedge \cdots \wedge x_{iN}^{\text{d}}}x_{ij}^{\text{d}}\in {\boldsymbol{X}}_{\text{d}} $
式中:算子$ \vee $和$ \wedge $分别为极大算子和极小算子。
$ \tilde{\boldsymbol{X}} $按列分块得$ \tilde{\boldsymbol{X}}=[{\tilde{\boldsymbol{x}}}_{1},{\tilde{\boldsymbol{x}}}_{2},\cdots ,{\tilde{\boldsymbol{x}}}_{N}] $,$ {\tilde{\boldsymbol{x}}}_{j}\in {\mathbb{R}}^{{{n}_{\text{d}}}},j=1,2,\cdots ,N $。定义均值向量m和协方差矩阵C为:
$ \boldsymbol{m}=\frac{1}{N}\sum \limits_{j=1}^{N}{\tilde{\boldsymbol{x}}}_{j} ,\qquad\quad \boldsymbol{C}=\frac{1}{N-1}\sum \limits_{j=1}^{N}({\tilde{\boldsymbol{x}}}_{j}-\boldsymbol{m}){({{\tilde{\boldsymbol{x}}}_{j}}-\boldsymbol{m})}^{\text{T}} $
求解协方差矩阵的特征值和特征向量$ \boldsymbol{C}{\boldsymbol{\xi }}_{k}={\mu }_{k}{\boldsymbol{\xi }}_{k} $,$ k=1,2,\cdots ,{n}_{\rm d} $,其中:$ 0 \lt {\mu }_{1}{{≤}} {\mu }_{2}{{≤}} \cdots {{≤}} {\mu }_{\upsilon } $, $ \upsilon $是C的秩,$ {\boldsymbol{\xi }}^{\text{T}}\boldsymbol{\xi }={\boldsymbol{I}}_{\upsilon }\in {\mathbb{R}}^{\upsilon \times \upsilon } $,$ \boldsymbol{\xi }=\left[{\boldsymbol{\xi }}_{1},{\boldsymbol{\xi }}_{2},\cdots ,{\boldsymbol{\xi }}_{\upsilon }\right]\in {\mathbb{R}}^{{{n}_{\text{d}}}\times \upsilon } $,$ {\boldsymbol{I}}_{\upsilon } $是$ {\mathbb{R}}^{\upsilon \times \upsilon } $中的恒等矩阵,由基本线性代数知识得到$ \text{rank}(\boldsymbol{C})=\upsilon {{≤}} \min \{{n}_{\rm d},N\}=5 $。将$ \tilde{\boldsymbol{X}} $代入式(1)~(2)得到特征值和特征向量。特征值如图1所示,横坐标代表特征值的序数。计算导出$ \upsilon =4 $。
根据主成分分析(principle component analysis, PCA)原理,随机矩阵$ \boldsymbol{X}\in {\mathbb{R}}^{{{n}_{\rm d}}\times N} $可以分解为
$ \boldsymbol{X}=\overline{\boldsymbol{X}}+\boldsymbol{\xi }{\boldsymbol{\mu }}^{1/2}\boldsymbol{H},\boldsymbol{H}\in {\mathbb{R}}^{\upsilon \times N} $
式中:$ \boldsymbol{\xi } $为协方差矩阵C的特征向量矩阵,且$ \overline{\boldsymbol{X}}=[\boldsymbol{m},\boldsymbol{m},\cdots ,\boldsymbol{m}]\in {\mathbb{R}}^{{{n}_{\rm d}}\times N} $;对角矩阵$ \boldsymbol{\mu }=\text{diag}\{{\mu }_{1},{\mu }_{2},\cdots ,{\mu }_{\upsilon }\} $。将$ \tilde{\boldsymbol{X}} $(即X的样本)代入式(3),得到H的样本点:
$ {\boldsymbol{\eta}}_{\mathrm{d}}={\boldsymbol{\mu}}^{-1/2}\xi ^{\mathrm{T}}(\tilde {\boldsymbol{X}}-\overline {\boldsymbol{X}}) $
$ {\boldsymbol{\eta }}_{\text{d}} $按列分块得$ {\boldsymbol{\eta }}_{d}=[\boldsymbol{\eta }_{1}^{\text{d}},\boldsymbol{\eta }_{2}^{\text{d}},\cdots ,\boldsymbol{\eta }_{N}^{\text{d}}] $,$ \boldsymbol{\eta }_{i}^{\text{d}}\in {\mathbb{R}}^{\upsilon } $,$ i=1,2,\cdots ,N $,满足:
$ {\boldsymbol{m}}^{\prime}=\frac{1}{N}\sum \limits_{j=1}^{N}\boldsymbol{\eta }_{j}^{\text{d}}=0 ,\qquad\qquad {\boldsymbol{C}}^{\prime}=\frac{1}{N-1}\sum \limits_{j=1}^{N}\boldsymbol{\eta }_{j}^{\text{d}}{({\boldsymbol{\eta }_{j}^{\text{d}}})}^{\text{T}}={\boldsymbol{I}}_{\upsilon } $
换句话说,PCA变换(式(3))生成N个中心化、不相关的样本点集合$ \{\boldsymbol{\eta }_{1}^{\text{d}},\boldsymbol{\eta }_{2}^{\text{d}},\cdots ,\boldsymbol{\eta }_{N}^{\text{d}}\} $。
采用Gauss核密度估计(kernel density estimation, KDE)结合$ {\boldsymbol{\eta }}_{\text{d}}=\{\boldsymbol{\eta }_{1}^{\text{d}},\boldsymbol{\eta }_{2}^{\text{d}},\cdots ,\boldsymbol{\eta }_{N}^{\text{d}}\} $用来构造随机向量的概率密度函数:
$ {\rho }_{\boldsymbol{Y}}(\boldsymbol{y})=\frac{1}{N}\sum \limits_{i=1}^{N}\frac{1}{{(\sqrt{2\pi }\hat{s})}^{\upsilon }}\exp \left(-\frac{1}{2{\hat{s}}^{2}}{\left|\left|\frac{\hat{s}}{{s}_{\mathrm{SB}}}\boldsymbol{\eta }_{i}^{\text{d}}-\boldsymbol{y}\right|\right|}^{2}\right)\qquad\quad \boldsymbol{y}\in {\mathbb{R}}^{\upsilon } $
式中:ρY(y)为随机向量Y的取y时的概率密度;$ \hat{s}={s}_{\mathrm{SB}}{[{s_{\mathrm{SB}}^{2}}+(N-1)/N]}^{-1/2} $,$ {s}_{\mathrm{SB}}={\left\{4/[N(2+\upsilon )]\right\}}^{1/(\upsilon +4)} $为Silverman带宽;$ \left|\left|\cdot \right|\right| $代表$ {\mathbb{R}}^{\upsilon } $中的Euclid范数。
由2.2节定义知,$ {\boldsymbol{\eta }}_{\text{d}} $是中心化、不相关矩阵。显然,当$ {\boldsymbol{\eta }}_{\text{d}} $的列向量相互独立时,式(6)构成随机向量Y的PDF。H以$ {\boldsymbol{\eta }}_{\text{d}} $为样本点,$ \boldsymbol{\eta } $为H的列向量,当$ {\boldsymbol{\eta }}_{\text{d}} $列向量相互独立,则
$ {\rho }_{\boldsymbol{H}}(\boldsymbol{\eta })=\prod \limits_{i=1}^{N}{\rho }_{\boldsymbol{Y}}({\boldsymbol{\eta }}_{i}) $
成为随机矩阵H的PDF。
与耗散映射相关的对称矩阵K和对角矩阵B定义为:
$ \boldsymbol{K}={[{{k}_{ij}}]}_{{{n}_{\text{d}}}\times {{n}_{\text{d}}}},\;\;\; \boldsymbol{B}={[{{b}_{ij}}]}_{{{n}_{\text{d}}}\times {{n}_{\text{d}}}}\qquad\qquad {k}_{ij}=\exp \{-{(4{{\varepsilon }_{\mathrm{DM}}})}^{-1}||{\boldsymbol{\eta }}_{i}-{\boldsymbol{\eta }}_{j}|{|}^{2}\},\;\;\; {b}_{ij}={b}_{i}{\delta }_{ij} $
式中:$ {b}_{i}=\displaystyle\sum \limits_{j=1}^{{n}_{\text{d}}}{k}_{ij} $,$ {\delta }_{ij} $为Kronecker算子,$ {\varepsilon }_{\mathrm{DM}} $为光滑参数。构造规范化矩阵$ \boldsymbol{P}={\boldsymbol{B}}^{-1}\boldsymbol{K} $。由式(7),矩阵K和B的元素均非负,故P的元素也非负且满足$\displaystyle\sum \limits_{j=1}^{{n}_{\text{d}}}{p}_{ij}=1 $,因此P可以看作与训练集矩阵$ {\boldsymbol{\eta }}_{\text{d}}= \{\boldsymbol{\eta }_{1}^{\text{d}},\boldsymbol{\eta }_{2}^{\text{d}},\cdots ,\boldsymbol{\eta }_{N}^{\text{d}}\} $相关图上随机游走的转移矩阵。
P的特征向量$ {\boldsymbol{\psi }}_{i}(i=1,2,\cdots ,{n}_{\text{d}}) $满足$ \boldsymbol{P}{\boldsymbol{\psi }}_{i}= {\lambda }_{i}{\boldsymbol{\psi }}_{i} $。令$ {\boldsymbol{\varphi }}_{i} = {\boldsymbol{B}}^{1/2}{\boldsymbol{\psi }}_{i}(i = 1,2,\cdots ,{n}_{\text{d}}) $,$ \tilde{\boldsymbol{P}} = {\boldsymbol{B}}^{1/2}\boldsymbol{P}{\boldsymbol{B}}^{-1/2} = {\boldsymbol{B}}^{-1/2}\boldsymbol{K}{\boldsymbol{B}}^{-1/2} $,则$ \tilde{\boldsymbol{P}}{\boldsymbol{\varphi }}_{i}={\lambda }_{i}{\boldsymbol{\varphi }}_{i} $。且$ \{{\boldsymbol{\varphi }}_{1},{\boldsymbol{\varphi }}_{2},\cdots ,{\boldsymbol{\varphi }}_{{{n}_{\text{d}}}}\} $张成的线性子空间$ \mathcal{L}\{{\boldsymbol{\varphi }}_{1},{\boldsymbol{\varphi }}_{2},\cdots ,{\boldsymbol{\varphi }}_{{{n}_{\text{d}}}}\}={\mathbb{R}}^{{{n}_{\text{d}}}} $。此外,将特征值按照降序排列得到$ 1={\lambda }_{1} \gt {\lambda }_{2}{{≥}} \cdots {{≥}} {\lambda }_{{{n}_{\text{d}}}} $。转移矩阵P的特征值降序排列见图2。
存在常数$ m{{≤}} {n}_{\text{d}} $,使得训练集$ {\mathcal{D}}_{\text{train}}\in \mathcal{L}\{{\boldsymbol{\psi }}_{1},$${\boldsymbol{\psi }}_{2},\cdots ,{\boldsymbol{\psi }}_{m}\}\subset {\mathbb{R}}^{{{n}_{\text{d}}}} $[25]。将耗散映射基函数定义为$ \{{\boldsymbol{g}}_{1},{\boldsymbol{g}}_{2},\cdots ,{\boldsymbol{g}}_{m}\} $,其中$ {\boldsymbol{g}}_{i}=\lambda _{i}^{k}{\boldsymbol{\psi }}_{i}\in {\mathbb{R}}^{{{n}_{\text{d}}}} $(i=1,2,···,m,$ \lambda _{i}^{k} $为$ {\lambda }_{i} $在第k步的取值),用以分析$ {\mathcal{D}}_{\mathrm{train}} $的局部结构。$ k=1 $,代表单步转移概率。接着定义耗散映射矩阵为$ \boldsymbol{G}=[{\boldsymbol{g}}_{1},{\boldsymbol{g}}_{2},\cdots ,{\boldsymbol{g}}_{m}](m{{≤}} {n}_{\text{d}}) $。利用图2中信息得到$ {\varepsilon }_{\text{DM}}=4,m=3 $。
令耗散基函数生成的线性空间$ \mathcal{L}\{{\boldsymbol{g}}_{1},{\boldsymbol{g}}_{2},\cdots ,{\boldsymbol{g}}_{m}\} $为$ {\mathbb{R}}^{N} $的子空间,用来描述$ {\mathcal{D}}_{\mathrm{train}} $的局部几何结构。由于$ {\boldsymbol{\psi }}_{i}\boldsymbol{B}{\boldsymbol{\psi }}_{j}={\delta }_{ij}(i,j=1,2,\cdots ,m) $,故矩阵$ {\boldsymbol{G}}^{\text{T}}\boldsymbol{G} $可逆。$ \mathcal{L}\{{\boldsymbol{g}}_{1},{\boldsymbol{g}}_{2},\cdots ,{\boldsymbol{g}}_{m}\}\subset {\mathbb{R}}^{N} $上的投影映射定义为$ \boldsymbol{A}=\boldsymbol{G}{({{\boldsymbol{G}}^{\text{T}}}\boldsymbol{G})}^{-1}\in {\mathbb{R}}^{N\times m} $。然后,利用随机矩阵Z构造降阶表达H:
$ \boldsymbol{H}=\boldsymbol{Z}{\boldsymbol{G}}^{\text{T}}\qquad \quad \boldsymbol{Z}\in {\mathbb{R}}^{\upsilon \times m} $
则
$ \boldsymbol{Z}=\boldsymbol{H}\boldsymbol{A} $
通过投影法(2.4节),定义限制在流形上的Itô方程,其中Gauss核密度估计(式(6))是随机微分方程的不变测度。具体而言,令$ \boldsymbol{Z}(t),\boldsymbol{Y}(t)\in {\mathbb{R}}^{\upsilon \times N} $,代表稳态Markov过程,具有如下形式:
$ \begin{cases} \text{d}\boldsymbol{Z }=\boldsymbol{Y}(t)\text{d}t\\\text{d}\boldsymbol{Y}=\mathbb{L}(\boldsymbol{Z }(t))\text{d}t-\dfrac{1}{2}{f}_{0}\boldsymbol{Y}(t)\text{d}t+\sqrt{{f}_{0}}\text{d}\boldsymbol{W}\end{cases} $
式中:$ \boldsymbol{Z}(0)={\boldsymbol{H}}_{\text{d}}\boldsymbol{A},\boldsymbol{Y}(0)=\boldsymbol{K}\boldsymbol{A},\boldsymbol{K}\in {\mathbb{R}}^{\upsilon \times N} $,其中K的列向量是独立的正态Gauss向量,$ {\boldsymbol{H}}_{\text{d}}\in {\mathbb{R}}^{\upsilon \times N} $是一个随机矩阵,样本为$ {\boldsymbol{\eta }}_{\text{d}} $;$ \boldsymbol{W}\in {\mathbb{R}}^{\upsilon \times N} $的列向量是$ \upsilon $维标准Wiener过程;$ \mathbb{L}(\boldsymbol{Z}(t))=L(\boldsymbol{Z}(t){\boldsymbol{G}}^{\text{T}}) $$ \in {\mathbb{R}}^{\upsilon \times m} $。泛函L(u)定义为:
$ {\left[L(\boldsymbol{u})\right]}_{ij}=\frac{1}{p({u}_{j})}{\{{{\nabla }_{{{u}_{j}}}}p({{u}_{j}})\}}_{i} $
$ \rho ({u}_{j})=\frac{1}{N}\sum \limits_{i=1}^{N}\exp \left(-\frac{1}{2{\hat{s}}^{2}}{\left|\left|\frac{\hat{s}}{{s}_{\rm {SB}}}{u}_{i}-{u}_{j}\right|\right|}^{2}\right) $
$ {\nabla }_{{{u}_{j}}}\rho ({u}_{j})=\frac{1}{\iota N}\sum \limits_{i=1}^{N}\left(\tau {\boldsymbol{u}}_{i}-{\boldsymbol{u}}_{j}\right)\exp \left(-\frac{1}{2{\hat{s}}^{2}}{\left|\left|\frac{\hat{s}}{{s}_{\rm {SB}}}{u}_{i}-{u}_{j}\right|\right|}^{2}\right)\qquad \tau =\frac{\hat{s}}{{s}_{\rm {SB}}},\;\;\iota ={\hat{s}}^{2} $
等步长Störmer-Verlet格式用以解决Wiener过程驱动的耗散Hamilton动力系统,离散化后得到:
$ \boldsymbol{H}=\boldsymbol{Z}\left(l\nu \right){\boldsymbol{G}}^{\text{T}}\;\;\;\qquad\;\;\; \nu ={M}_{0}{\Delta }t,\qquad l=1,2,\cdots ,{n}_{\text{MC}} $
式中:经验参数$ {M}_{0}=18 $,时间步长$ \Delta t=0.238 $,l为MC抽样次数。
图3(a)为原始数据在p-x*空间的投影。将采样公式(式(14))代入仿射变换(式(3))后得到感兴趣量(quantity of interest, QoI)的样本数据,更多关于QoI的采样数据信息及其在p-$x^{*} $空间的投影见图3(b)。PLoM生成的样本数据集,记作$ {\mathcal{D}}_{\text{learn}}(\boldsymbol{x})= \{({\rho }_{i},{u}_{i},{p}_{i},x_{i}^{*},t_{i}^{*})\in {\mathbb{R}}^{N}|i=1,2,\cdots ,{N}_{\text{learn}}\} $,其中$ {N}_{\text{learn}}= 7\; 760 $。比较图3(a)和(b)发现,随着样本容量增加408倍,图3右侧图像直观看出爆轰位置和冲击应力服从幂率,即爆轰位置和冲击应力服从双对数模型。
第2节产生的学习集$ {\mathcal{D}}_{\text{learn}}(\boldsymbol{x}) $中含有7760个数据,样本容量足够充分,可以使用非参数统计方法标定物理量的概率密度函数。本文使用KDE方法计算物理量的概率密度函数,如图4所示。可以看出,PBX9502样品密度的PDF与正态分布具有高度一致性。事实上,使用假设检验法可认定PBX9502炸药密度服从正态分布。这些样品虽来自4家不同的公司[11],但由于密度测试流程相对简单且统一,样品加工工艺水平相当,使得密度的分布近似服从正态分布。其次是爆轰位置和爆轰时间的PDF也近似具有单峰性。而对于其余物理量,特别是冲击速度和冲击应力,PDF呈现出双峰特征,且冲击应力的分布较宽。从取值范围来看,密度的支集最集中,而冲击应力PDF最广。这也反映出压力等物理量的测试流程更为复杂,精密化试验能力还有待提升。
利用图4信息可计算得到待标定物理量的Gauss统计量,包括期望、标准差和95%置信区间。从表2可以看出PBX9502密度的期望为1.888 g/cm3,标准差为0.0018 g/cm3,变异系数约为1‰。其中密度的PLoM标定值与Rocketdyne公司1979年的产品最相似,为1.889 g/cm3 [11]。标准差和变异系数都很小,也反映了20世纪90年代左右高能钝感炸药PBX9502加工工艺方面的水平,即标准差约为期望值的1‰。从变异系数的大小来看,密度、冲击速度、冲击应力、爆轰位置和爆轰时间依次增大。置信区间的宽度也具有同样的递增规律。这说明不确定度的大小与试验的精密化能力及流程复杂性密切相关。
表3给出了PBX9502的密度统计标定结果。比较而言,本文的标准差小于Gustavsen[11]和孙承纬[1]的标定结果。且[1.8888−0.0018,1.8888+0.0018] g/cm3$\subset $[1.890−0.005,1.890+0.005] g/cm3$\subset $[1.895−0.01,1.890+0.01] g/cm3即PLoM生成的数据集中度更高,从侧面反映出PLoM生成的数据是可信的。
从表2可以看出,试验标定的冲击速度的期望为2.652 km/s,而Gustavsen[11]声称其试验所用的冲击速度期望为2.66 km/s,PLoM生成的试验数据与文献[11]的冲击速度相对误差为$ | 2.652- 2.66| /2.66\approx 0.3{\text{%}} $。另外,文献[11]声称其所用的冲击应力期望为12.78 GPa,而试验标定的结果为12.7741 GPa,PLoM试验结果与文献[11]的冲击应力相对误差为$ \left| 12.7741-12.78\right| / 12.78\approx 0.05{\text{%}} $。这说明PLoM生成的冲击应力和冲击速度的数据品质可与真实试验数据相当。与文献[11]结果的比对,进一步说明了PLoM方法的有效性。从表2还可以发现,相对于密度和速度,冲击应力的离散程度较大,这与孙承纬的结论吻合[1]。由表2还可知,在20世纪90年代,由于爆轰反应时间短、速度快及光学元器件精密化程度不足等因素,导致爆轰时间和爆轰位置的试验精密化能力受限,还需进一步加强。
综上所述,PLoM生成的试验数据显示该方法具有有效性。
从图3发现压力和爆轰位置存在明显的指数衰减趋势,即近似服从幂函数关系。将PLoM生成的压力和爆轰位置作对数变换,得到图5。由图5(a)可知,lg p和lg $x^{*} $近似服从线性关系。利用最小二乘法进行拟合,得到
$ \text{lg}{x}^{*}=9.849\;4-3.072\;3\text{lg}p $
式(15)表明,PBX9502的爆轰位置与初始冲击应力服从对数线性关系。
图5(b)显示,式(15)和表1中的试验数据吻合良好。表明PLoM生成的样本不仅保持了自身的统计特征,而且成功保持了冲击应力与爆轰距离之间的函数关系,即一般物理规律。通过对比分析,初始试验数据和曲线吻合较好,进一步确认了方法的有效性。事实上,为克服试验数据稀疏的局限,文献[11]通过增加试验次数确保数据的充分性,即添加了文献[25]与[26]的数据。基于这些数据,研究人员标定了冲击应力和爆轰位置的对数模型,并给出了对数斜率的不确定度$ [2.94,3.1] $。式(15)标定的对数斜率为$ 3.0723\in [2.94,3.1] $,结果落入文献[11]的置信区间内,从侧面证明了研究结果是可信的。
将冲击应力和爆轰时间进行对数变换(图6(a)),可以看出lg p和lg $t^{*} $也近似服从线性关系:
$ \text{lg}\,{t}^{*}=8.932\,8-3.287\,1\,\text{lg}p $
式(16)表明,PBX9502的爆轰时间和初始冲击应力服从对数线性关系。图6(b)表明,式(16)和表1中提供的爆轰时间与冲击应力的试验数据吻合很好,进一步确认了方法的有效性。同时PLoM生成的数字试验数据仍然保持了冲击应力和爆轰时间的函数关系。文献[11]通过增加试验次数,标定了冲击应力和爆轰时间的双对数模型,并给出了对数斜率的不确定度$ [3.23,3.37] $。式(16)标定的对数斜率为$ 3.2871\in [3.23,3.37] $,也落入文献[11]标定的对数斜率的置信区间内,确认了方法的可信性。
总之,通过标定获得的爆轰位置和爆轰时间与冲击应力的函数关系,与初始试验数据及文献[11]标定的对数斜率均吻合良好。与文献[11]的工作精度相当,但本文所使用的试验样本数量比文献[11]少一倍以上。考虑到PBX9502材料制备和试验的高昂成本,PLoM的费用几乎忽略不计,在一定程度上节约了标定成本。此外,文献[25]中使用的楔形试验装置与文献[11]中描述的轻气炮装置不同,不同源的试验数据在一定程度上会增加试验结果的不确定度。最后,PLoM生成的7760个数字试验数据与真实试验结果保持了良好一致性。而轻气炮试验需实施7760次试验获取同等规模的数据集,从人力财力角度来看几乎是不可能的。这表明PLoM可作为传统试验的有效替代方法,为爆轰研究提供了新技术途径。
PLoM方法本质上属于机器学习,主要包含基于几何耗散的流形嵌入和Itô-MCMC采样两个步骤,能够有效标定小样本试验数据,且面对外部扰动时表现出良好的鲁棒性。本文采用PLoM方法,针对具有多物理属性且样本容量稀疏的PBX9502材料,系统开展了试验不确定度量化研究。与传统试验不确定度量化方法相比,PLoM方法主观因素更少,客观性更强。该方法可准确推导出冲击试验中PBX9502的密度、冲击速度、冲击应力、爆轰时间和爆轰距离的概率密度函数,从而进一步获得密度、冲击速度、冲击应力、爆轰时间和爆轰距离的包括期望、标准差、95%置信区间等在内的丰富统计信息,较以往方法提供了更为全面的数理统计信息。
将研究结果与Gustavsen[11]和孙承纬等[1]的成果进行对比分析,PLoM方法得出的PBX9502密度的期望符合20世纪90年代工艺水平,且PBX9502密度的标准差更小,数据集中度更好。PLoM不仅揭示了PBX9502的密度、冲击速度、冲击压力、爆轰时间和爆轰距离的统计特征,还保持了爆轰时间和爆轰距离与冲击应力之间的函数关系。通过增加数字试验结果,该方法有助于更深入、更精确地理解爆轰机理。
研究结果显示,爆轰时间和爆轰距离与冲击应力之间满足双对数模型关系,且对数斜率落在文献[11]标定的置信区间内,这进一步验证了PLoM方法的有效性。与文献[11]通过增加试验次数来提高标定精度的策略相比,鉴于PBX9502的制备和爆轰试验测试成本,PLoM方法的成本几乎可以忽略不计,展现出显著的成本优势。
综上所述,PLoM方法生成的试验数据符合实际情况,成为物理试验的有效替代手段。该方法通过对已有试验数据的学习与处理,获得了更高精度的数字实验结果。PLoM泛化能力强,有望推广到其他类型的试验数据分析。本文的研究数据局限于室温条件下的冲击起爆,下一步拟搜集温度大幅变动下冲击起爆的权威试验数据。使用PLoM研究温度影响下,爆轰时间、爆轰距离与冲击应力的函数关系。
在法国巴黎东大学Christian Soize教授的指导下掌握了PLoM技术,在此表示感谢。

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doi: 10.11883/bzycj-2025-0042
  • 接收时间:2025-02-14
  • 首发时间:2026-10-10
  • 出版时间:2026-09-05
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  • 收稿日期:2025-02-14
  • 修回日期:2025-04-01
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    1山东科技大学数学与系统科学学院,山东 青岛 266590
    2河南省科学院数学研究所,河南 郑州 450052
    3北京应用物理与计算数学研究所,北京 100094
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