Article(id=1322941254912320188, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, issueId=1322941226537857309, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.13700/j.bh.1001-5965.2025.0322, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1748275200000, receivedDateStr=2025-05-27, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1758729600000, acceptedDateStr=2025-09-25, onlineDate=1793343374230, onlineDateStr=2026-10-30, pubDate=1793376000000, pubDateStr=2026-10-31, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1793343374230, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-10-30, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1793343374230, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1793343374230, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1322941226537857309, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, year='2026', volume='52', issue='10', pageStart='3237', pageEnd='3676', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1793376000000', pubDateStr='2026-10-31', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1793343367466, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1793344760378, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1322947068926505286, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, issueId=1322941226537857309, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1322947068926505287, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, issueId=1322941226537857309, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=3276, endPage=3297, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1322941255310779069, articleId=1322941254912320188, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, language=EN, title=Research progress on modeling and simulation of characteristics of all-solid-state batteries, columnId=null, journalTitle=Journal of Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Governments and large automakers worldwide are aggressively investing in and developing all-solid-state batteries (ASSBs) as a next-generation battery technology because of their promise to provide high specific energy and improved safety. However, significant challenges remain in terms of research and development as well as large-scale industrialization. Conducting modeling and simulation studies on ASSBs can help reveal their underlying operational mechanisms and clarify the factors influencing their performance. This, in turn, enables the design of ASSBs that meet targeted specifications and achieve desired operational performance, ultimately shortening the cycles of experimental testing and development. This paper provides a comprehensive review and analysis of modeling and simulation efforts in the areas of molecular dynamics calculations, key materials and interfacial characteristics, and electrochemical performance of ASSBs. Particular emphasis is placed on the microstructural modeling of sulfide-based solid electrolytes, interfacial behavior, ion transport mechanisms, stress generation, and fracture induced by the interphase between electrodes and electrolytes. The study also identifies possible research goals, describes future trends in ASSB modeling and simulation, and attempts to use these insights to hasten the industrialization and practical application of ASSBs.

, authors=Lijin ZHAO1, 2, Shichun YANG1, *, Guofang LIU2, Jingyao QU2, Xudong SUN2, 3, authorsList=Lijin ZHAO, Shichun YANG, Guofang LIU, Jingyao QU, Xudong SUN, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Shichun YANG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
E-mail:
, copyrightStatement=Copyright © 2026 Journal of Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1322941260482355939, articleId=1322941254912320188, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, language=CN, title=全固态电池特性建模与仿真研究进展, columnId=null, journalTitle=北京航空航天大学学报, columnName=, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

全固态电池(ASSB)具备高比能和高安全的潜在特点,是全球各国政府及主流车企均在积极布局的下一代电池技术,但仍面临较大的研发和产业化挑战。通过开展全固态电池建模和仿真研究,可揭示其工作机制、掌握影响规律,进而设计满足指标需求、达到工作性能的全固态电池,缩短实验测试与开发周期。围绕全固态电池的分子动力学计算、关键材料及界面特性、电化学性能领域的建模和仿真工作进行了总结和分析,并重点对硫化物固态电解质材料微观结构建模、界面特性、离子输运机制、电解质间隙诱导应力和断裂等领域进行梳理,对全固态电池建模及仿真发展趋势进行展望,提出今后研究重点,期望可以促进全固态电池尽快实现产业化和应用。

, authors=赵立金1, 2, 杨世春1, *, 刘国芳2, 曲婧瑶2, 孙旭东2, 3, authorsList=赵立金, 杨世春, 刘国芳, 曲婧瑶, 孙旭东, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=杨世春, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
E-mail:
, copyrightStatement=版权所有 © 2026 北京航空航天大学学报(自然科学版)编辑部, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=BDSBjOfwDkD9wmWPZb4cCA==, magXml=IG3mrlcMDr0lRf7Yt+lM0A==, pdfUrl=null, pdf=NQLbnt9l8dAHNhF4/RPP5w==, pdfFileSize=29478077, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=Kx8Ks3HcMdno9A2HIZkfSA==, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=ja+ZzeGzQ3DJ0dlhG5BH2w==, mapNumber=null, fund=null)}, authors=[Author(id=1322941262818583278, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941254912320188, orderNo=0, firstName=null, middleName=null, lastName=null, nameCn=null, orcid=null, stid=null, country=null, authorPic=null, dead=0, email=null, emailSecond=null, emailThird=null, correspondingAuthor=0, authorType=1, ext={EN=AuthorExt(id=1322941263099601649, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941254912320188, authorId=1322941262818583278, language=EN, stringName=Lijin ZHAO, firstName=Lijin, middleName=null, lastName=ZHAO, prefix=null, suffix=null, authorComment=null, nameInitials=null, affiliation=null, department=null, xref=1, 2, address=1School of Transportation Science and Engineering,Beihang University,Beijing 100191,China
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车企搭载车型电池供应商装车进程
丰田汽车自研2025年8月,宣布突破硫化物固态电池耐久性瓶颈,计划2027—2028年量产装车
日产汽车自研2024年4月,宣布横滨工厂建成全固态电池试产线,计划2028年量产
宝马集团i7Solid Power2025年5月,宣布与Solid Power联合开发20 Ah全固态电芯,启动原型车i7路测
大众集团Quantum Scape通过Quantum Scape投资推进固态电池商业化,2024年1月通过PowerCo耐久性指标验证;2025年9月,完成全球首次QS固态锂金属电池驱动电动车的实车演示
福特汽车SK On与SK On合作开发聚合物基固态电池,计划2026年装车测试
长安汽车自研预计2026年实现固态电池装车验证,2027年推进全固态电池逐步量产,能量密度达400 Wh/kg
东风汽车奕派007自研2025年9月,表示全自主研发350 Wh/kg、1 C固态电池,2026年装车;第二代半固态电池量产装车(奕派007车型),支持4 C快充
上汽集团MG4上汽清陶能源2025年在全新MG4上量产新一代固态电池,并计划于2027年推出首款全固态“光启电池”
广汽集团昊铂自研2024年4月,宣布第三代海绵硅负极技术和高面容量固态正极技术,实现全固态电池能量密度达到400 Wh/kg以上,目标在2026年完成全固态电池开发,并首先搭载于昊铂车型
奇瑞汽车自研2024年宣布,自主研发的全固态电池,1500 km续航,6 C充电效率,且将会在2026年上车,2027年开始量产
蔚来汽车ES6/ET7北京卫蓝新能源搭载150 kWh半固态电池的ES6、ET7于2023年量产;2024年6月起,150 kWh电池包适配蔚来旗下所有车型
), ArticleFig(id=1322941269533664047, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941254912320188, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

整车企业固态电池产品布局

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
车企搭载车型电池供应商装车进程
丰田汽车自研2025年8月,宣布突破硫化物固态电池耐久性瓶颈,计划2027—2028年量产装车
日产汽车自研2024年4月,宣布横滨工厂建成全固态电池试产线,计划2028年量产
宝马集团i7Solid Power2025年5月,宣布与Solid Power联合开发20 Ah全固态电芯,启动原型车i7路测
大众集团Quantum Scape通过Quantum Scape投资推进固态电池商业化,2024年1月通过PowerCo耐久性指标验证;2025年9月,完成全球首次QS固态锂金属电池驱动电动车的实车演示
福特汽车SK On与SK On合作开发聚合物基固态电池,计划2026年装车测试
长安汽车自研预计2026年实现固态电池装车验证,2027年推进全固态电池逐步量产,能量密度达400 Wh/kg
东风汽车奕派007自研2025年9月,表示全自主研发350 Wh/kg、1 C固态电池,2026年装车;第二代半固态电池量产装车(奕派007车型),支持4 C快充
上汽集团MG4上汽清陶能源2025年在全新MG4上量产新一代固态电池,并计划于2027年推出首款全固态“光启电池”
广汽集团昊铂自研2024年4月,宣布第三代海绵硅负极技术和高面容量固态正极技术,实现全固态电池能量密度达到400 Wh/kg以上,目标在2026年完成全固态电池开发,并首先搭载于昊铂车型
奇瑞汽车自研2024年宣布,自主研发的全固态电池,1500 km续航,6 C充电效率,且将会在2026年上车,2027年开始量产
蔚来汽车ES6/ET7北京卫蓝新能源搭载150 kWh半固态电池的ES6、ET7于2023年量产;2024年6月起,150 kWh电池包适配蔚来旗下所有车型
), ArticleFig(id=1322941271182025520, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941254912320188, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=Layout of solid state battery products for battery enterprises, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
企业电池类型能量密度/(Wh·kg−1)产业化进程
宁德时代全固态电池5002025年5月,表示预计2027年有望实现小批量生产
比亚迪硫化物全固态电池4002024年宣布,首款全固态电池将搭载于海豹EV车型;全固态电池中试完成,重庆璧山基地规划100 GWh产能
中创新航全固态电池430自研的430 Wh/kg全固态电池已完成产线建设,并规划了从半固态到全固态的稳健推进路线,配套产线于2025年正式投用
国轩高科全固态电池3502024年5月,推出金石全固态电池,比能量350 Wh/kg;2025年5月,推出G垣准固态电池,比能量300 Wh/kg;宣布首条全固态实验线贯通,该生产线100%自主开发,设计产能达0.2 GWh,良品率高达90%
蜂巢能源半固态电池3002025年11月,半固态电池产线正式投产,第一代高镍半固态电池(能量密度270 Wh/kg)已实现小批量生产,首搭于欧洲豪华品牌乘用车;第二代高镍半固态电池(能量密度342 Wh/kg)开发完成,主要配套低空飞行器,已完成装机试飞测试
孚能科技硫化物全固态电池400~500硫化物固态电池突破车规级验证,能量密度400 Wh/kg,续航超1000 km,10 min快充80%,安全性能提升10倍,2026年小批量交付广汽埃安等车企
赣锋锂业固态电池400~5002025年6月,表示已形成电池全链路布局,首款500 Wh/kg级10 Ah产品实现小批量量产,400 Wh/kg电池循环寿命突破800次并完成工程验证
鹏辉能源固态电池3202025年8月,表示固态电池能量密度已由280 Wh/kg提升至320 Wh/kg
上汽清陶能源半固态电池+
全固态电池
368国内首条1 GWh半固态电池产线已投产,能量密度368 Wh/kg,搭载上汽智己L6车型实现1000 km续航,全固态电池计划2026年量产,能量密度目标500 Wh/kg
北京卫蓝新能源半固态电池+
全固态电池
360150 kWh半固态电池包已交付蔚来ET7,充电倍率提升至3 C,2025年底,半固态电池已有产能规模达5.6 GWh;全固态电池能量密度达400 Wh/kg,计划2027年小批量装车
LG新能源固态电池计划开发包括固态电池在内的下一代电池,并将在2030年前推出成熟产品
三星SDI全固态电池新一代电池能量密度预计可达约900 Wh/L,有望在2027年前后应用于下一代Galaxy系列手机及电动交通工具中
SK On半固态电池一条半固态电池中试线正在运行,半固态电池样品将在2026年底实现生产
Quantum Scape全固态电池400与大众合作推进固态电池量产,目标能量密度400 Wh/kg;2025年6月,宣布独特的Cobra隔膜工艺已顺利融入基线电池生产流程
), ArticleFig(id=1322941271299466033, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941254912320188, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

电池企业固态电池产品布局

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
企业电池类型能量密度/(Wh·kg−1)产业化进程
宁德时代全固态电池5002025年5月,表示预计2027年有望实现小批量生产
比亚迪硫化物全固态电池4002024年宣布,首款全固态电池将搭载于海豹EV车型;全固态电池中试完成,重庆璧山基地规划100 GWh产能
中创新航全固态电池430自研的430 Wh/kg全固态电池已完成产线建设,并规划了从半固态到全固态的稳健推进路线,配套产线于2025年正式投用
国轩高科全固态电池3502024年5月,推出金石全固态电池,比能量350 Wh/kg;2025年5月,推出G垣准固态电池,比能量300 Wh/kg;宣布首条全固态实验线贯通,该生产线100%自主开发,设计产能达0.2 GWh,良品率高达90%
蜂巢能源半固态电池3002025年11月,半固态电池产线正式投产,第一代高镍半固态电池(能量密度270 Wh/kg)已实现小批量生产,首搭于欧洲豪华品牌乘用车;第二代高镍半固态电池(能量密度342 Wh/kg)开发完成,主要配套低空飞行器,已完成装机试飞测试
孚能科技硫化物全固态电池400~500硫化物固态电池突破车规级验证,能量密度400 Wh/kg,续航超1000 km,10 min快充80%,安全性能提升10倍,2026年小批量交付广汽埃安等车企
赣锋锂业固态电池400~5002025年6月,表示已形成电池全链路布局,首款500 Wh/kg级10 Ah产品实现小批量量产,400 Wh/kg电池循环寿命突破800次并完成工程验证
鹏辉能源固态电池3202025年8月,表示固态电池能量密度已由280 Wh/kg提升至320 Wh/kg
上汽清陶能源半固态电池+
全固态电池
368国内首条1 GWh半固态电池产线已投产,能量密度368 Wh/kg,搭载上汽智己L6车型实现1000 km续航,全固态电池计划2026年量产,能量密度目标500 Wh/kg
北京卫蓝新能源半固态电池+
全固态电池
360150 kWh半固态电池包已交付蔚来ET7,充电倍率提升至3 C,2025年底,半固态电池已有产能规模达5.6 GWh;全固态电池能量密度达400 Wh/kg,计划2027年小批量装车
LG新能源固态电池计划开发包括固态电池在内的下一代电池,并将在2030年前推出成熟产品
三星SDI全固态电池新一代电池能量密度预计可达约900 Wh/L,有望在2027年前后应用于下一代Galaxy系列手机及电动交通工具中
SK On半固态电池一条半固态电池中试线正在运行,半固态电池样品将在2026年底实现生产
Quantum Scape全固态电池400与大众合作推进固态电池量产,目标能量密度400 Wh/kg;2025年6月,宣布独特的Cobra隔膜工艺已顺利融入基线电池生产流程
), ArticleFig(id=1322941271383352114, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941254912320188, language=EN, label=Table 3, caption=Summary of commonly used models for lithium batteries, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
模型基本介绍示意图优点缺点适用范围
电化学模型基于电化学反应机理构建,如Newman伪二维(pseudo-two-dimensions,P2D)模型,通过偏微分方程描述锂离子在固/液相中的扩散、电荷转移和电解质迁移等过程,典型应用包括电极材料优化和充放电特性预测①物理意义明确,能精确描述电池内部反应机理;
②适用于微观尺度(如活性颗粒)的优化设计
①计算复杂度高,需大量参数(如扩散系数、反应速率常数);
②难以扩展到模组或系统级别
电极材料开发、高精度单体电芯性能仿真、基础电化学研究
等效电路模型通过电路元件(电阻、电容、电感等)模拟电池外特性,如Rint、Thevenin、PNGV模型等,分数阶等效电路模型进一步引入非线性元件提升动态特性拟合能力①结构简单,参数辨识容易(如通过脉冲测试提取欧姆内阻、极化电阻);
②计算效率高,适用于实时状态估计,如SOC、SOH
①无法反映电池内部机理(如锂枝晶生长);
②精度受限于模型阶数,高阶模型参数辨识困难
电池管理系统在线控制、电动汽车能量管理策略、快速仿真场景(如硬件在环测试)
热-电化学-力耦合模型多物理场耦合模型,结合电化学、热力学和力学效应,模拟电池充放电过程中的电流分布、温度场变化及应力演变(如扩散诱导应力、热应力)①全面分析电池性能与安全性(如热失控、结构形变);
②支持固态电池等新型设计的优化
①计算资源消耗巨大,需高性能计算
支持;
②模型参数获取复
杂(如材料弹性模量、热膨胀系数)
电池热管理设计、固态电池应力分析、极端工况下的安全性评估
神经网络模型数据驱动模型,通过大量实验数据训练网络(如长短期记忆网络、卷积神经网络)预测电池特性(如容量衰减、电压响应),无需依赖机理公式,适合处理非线性问题①适应复杂工况(如动态负载、老化演变);
②可融合多源数据(电压、温度、电流)提升预测精度
①依赖高质量数据集,数据获取成本高;
②模型泛化能力受限,外推性能较差
电池寿命预测、复杂动态工况下的状态估计、数据丰富的工业场景(如电池回收评估)
), ArticleFig(id=1322941271488209715, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941254912320188, language=CN, label=表3, caption=

锂电池常用模型总结

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
模型基本介绍示意图优点缺点适用范围
电化学模型基于电化学反应机理构建,如Newman伪二维(pseudo-two-dimensions,P2D)模型,通过偏微分方程描述锂离子在固/液相中的扩散、电荷转移和电解质迁移等过程,典型应用包括电极材料优化和充放电特性预测①物理意义明确,能精确描述电池内部反应机理;
②适用于微观尺度(如活性颗粒)的优化设计
①计算复杂度高,需大量参数(如扩散系数、反应速率常数);
②难以扩展到模组或系统级别
电极材料开发、高精度单体电芯性能仿真、基础电化学研究
等效电路模型通过电路元件(电阻、电容、电感等)模拟电池外特性,如Rint、Thevenin、PNGV模型等,分数阶等效电路模型进一步引入非线性元件提升动态特性拟合能力①结构简单,参数辨识容易(如通过脉冲测试提取欧姆内阻、极化电阻);
②计算效率高,适用于实时状态估计,如SOC、SOH
①无法反映电池内部机理(如锂枝晶生长);
②精度受限于模型阶数,高阶模型参数辨识困难
电池管理系统在线控制、电动汽车能量管理策略、快速仿真场景(如硬件在环测试)
热-电化学-力耦合模型多物理场耦合模型,结合电化学、热力学和力学效应,模拟电池充放电过程中的电流分布、温度场变化及应力演变(如扩散诱导应力、热应力)①全面分析电池性能与安全性(如热失控、结构形变);
②支持固态电池等新型设计的优化
①计算资源消耗巨大,需高性能计算
支持;
②模型参数获取复
杂(如材料弹性模量、热膨胀系数)
电池热管理设计、固态电池应力分析、极端工况下的安全性评估
神经网络模型数据驱动模型,通过大量实验数据训练网络(如长短期记忆网络、卷积神经网络)预测电池特性(如容量衰减、电压响应),无需依赖机理公式,适合处理非线性问题①适应复杂工况(如动态负载、老化演变);
②可融合多源数据(电压、温度、电流)提升预测精度
①依赖高质量数据集,数据获取成本高;
②模型泛化能力受限,外推性能较差
电池寿命预测、复杂动态工况下的状态估计、数据丰富的工业场景(如电池回收评估)
), ArticleFig(id=1322941271601455924, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941254912320188, language=EN, label=Table 4, caption=Ionic and electronic conductivity of lithium sulfur silver germanite solid electrolytes with different structures[67], figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
化学式离子电导率/(mS·cm−1)电子电导率/(mS·cm−1)
Li5.5PS4.5Cl1.53.91.4×10−5
Li5.75PS4.75Cl1.253.02.6×10−5
Li6PS5Br1.94.4×10−6
Li6PS5Cl0.25Br0.753.41.1×10−5
Li6PS5Cl0.5Br0.53.91.4×10−5
Li6PS5Cl0.75Br0.253.23.7×10−6
Li6PS5Cl2.45.1×10−6
), ArticleFig(id=1322941271685342005, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941254912320188, language=CN, label=表4, caption=

不同结构锂硫银锗矿型固态电解质的离子电导率和电子电导率[67]

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
化学式离子电导率/(mS·cm−1)电子电导率/(mS·cm−1)
Li5.5PS4.5Cl1.53.91.4×10−5
Li5.75PS4.75Cl1.253.02.6×10−5
Li6PS5Br1.94.4×10−6
Li6PS5Cl0.25Br0.753.41.1×10−5
Li6PS5Cl0.5Br0.53.91.4×10−5
Li6PS5Cl0.75Br0.253.23.7×10−6
Li6PS5Cl2.45.1×10−6
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全固态电池特性建模与仿真研究进展
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赵立金 1, 2 , 杨世春 1, * , 刘国芳 2 , 曲婧瑶 2 , 孙旭东 2, 3
北京航空航天大学学报 | 2026,52(10): 3276-3297
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北京航空航天大学学报 | 2026 , 52 (10) : 3276 -3297
全固态电池特性建模与仿真研究进展
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赵立金1, 2, 杨世春1, * , 刘国芳2, 曲婧瑶2, 孙旭东2, 3
作者信息
  • 1北京航空航天大学 交通科学与工程学院,北京 100191
  • 2中国汽车工程学会,北京 100176
  • 3重庆大学 机械与运载工程学院,重庆 400044
通讯作者:
Research progress on modeling and simulation of characteristics of all-solid-state batteries
Lijin ZHAO1, 2, Shichun YANG1, * , Guofang LIU2, Jingyao QU2, Xudong SUN2, 3
Affiliations
  • 1School of Transportation Science and Engineering,Beihang University,Beijing 100191,China
  • 2China Society of Automotive Engineers,Beijing 100176,China
  • 3College of Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering,Chongqing University,Chongqing 400044,China
  • Corresponding Author:
出版时间: 2026-10-31 doi: 10.13700/j.bh.1001-5965.2025.0322
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全固态电池(ASSB)具备高比能和高安全的潜在特点,是全球各国政府及主流车企均在积极布局的下一代电池技术,但仍面临较大的研发和产业化挑战。通过开展全固态电池建模和仿真研究,可揭示其工作机制、掌握影响规律,进而设计满足指标需求、达到工作性能的全固态电池,缩短实验测试与开发周期。围绕全固态电池的分子动力学计算、关键材料及界面特性、电化学性能领域的建模和仿真工作进行了总结和分析,并重点对硫化物固态电解质材料微观结构建模、界面特性、离子输运机制、电解质间隙诱导应力和断裂等领域进行梳理,对全固态电池建模及仿真发展趋势进行展望,提出今后研究重点,期望可以促进全固态电池尽快实现产业化和应用。

全固态电池  /  建立模型  /  仿真分析  /  多物理场  /  固态电解质

Governments and large automakers worldwide are aggressively investing in and developing all-solid-state batteries (ASSBs) as a next-generation battery technology because of their promise to provide high specific energy and improved safety. However, significant challenges remain in terms of research and development as well as large-scale industrialization. Conducting modeling and simulation studies on ASSBs can help reveal their underlying operational mechanisms and clarify the factors influencing their performance. This, in turn, enables the design of ASSBs that meet targeted specifications and achieve desired operational performance, ultimately shortening the cycles of experimental testing and development. This paper provides a comprehensive review and analysis of modeling and simulation efforts in the areas of molecular dynamics calculations, key materials and interfacial characteristics, and electrochemical performance of ASSBs. Particular emphasis is placed on the microstructural modeling of sulfide-based solid electrolytes, interfacial behavior, ion transport mechanisms, stress generation, and fracture induced by the interphase between electrodes and electrolytes. The study also identifies possible research goals, describes future trends in ASSB modeling and simulation, and attempts to use these insights to hasten the industrialization and practical application of ASSBs.

all-solid-state battery  /  model building  /  simulation analysis  /  multi physics field  /  solid electrolyte
赵立金, 杨世春, 刘国芳, 曲婧瑶, 孙旭东. 全固态电池特性建模与仿真研究进展. 北京航空航天大学学报, 2026 , 52 (10) : 3276 -3297 . DOI: 10.13700/j.bh.1001-5965.2025.0322
Lijin ZHAO, Shichun YANG, Guofang LIU, Jingyao QU, Xudong SUN. Research progress on modeling and simulation of characteristics of all-solid-state batteries[J]. Journal of Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2026 , 52 (10) : 3276 -3297 . DOI: 10.13700/j.bh.1001-5965.2025.0322
高效安全的动力电池研发及产业化是保持新能源汽车产业竞争力的核心。经过多年发展,中国锂离子电池产业在全球形成较强竞争力并占据绝对优势。虽然液态动力电池的能量密度仍有发展空间,但运行安全性存在较大风险,其综合性能难以满足行业发展的高质量要求。以全固态电池(all-solid-state battery, ASSB)为代表的下一代电池,有望突破传统液态电池的瓶颈,具备兼顾高能量密度、长循环寿命、高安全性能、宽温度范围等综合特性的潜力,正在成为全球汽车强国铆力发展的下一代电池新赛道[1]。目前,全固态电池成为产学研焦点,多条技术路线齐头并进。全固态电池使用固体电极和固体电解质,不含液体电解质成分。
本文围绕全固态电池特性建模及仿真,总结和分析目前正极、负极、电解质材料微观模型建立的现状,并重点围绕锂枝晶生长、负极颗粒膨胀等重点领域探讨技术解决手段,总结基于多物理场耦合的全固态电池电芯的电化学性能和安全性能的建模和仿真。期望通过本文的梳理,能促进全固态电池的精确建模,并依托模型开展关键材料改性、电芯设计优化、系统集成创新,最终加速全固态电池产业化进程。
典型的全固态电池结构如图1所示,隔膜被替换为固态电解质,减少隔膜破损失效造成内短路引发热失控的风险。
日本丰田汽车、韩国三星SDI等硫化物基全固态电池代表企业,宣布开发出大容量软包电池样品,计划于2026—2030年完成量产及装车应用。美国Quantum Scape公司采用氧化物、硫化物2种电解质材料路线,开发的2.2 Ah实验室原型全固态电池能量密度推算可超过400 Wh/kg,1 C充放电循环580次,容量保持率达到90%。中国多技术路线布局全固态电池研发和产业化,以硫化物电解质为主要产品路线的宁德时代、比亚迪等计划于2026—2027年完成小批量生产及装车应用;以氧化物和聚合物复合电解质为主要产品路线的北京卫蓝新能源、上汽清陶能源等计划于2026—2027年完成小批量生产及装车应用。目前,多家动力电池企业已开发出10 Ah级的高比能量全固态锂离子电池,能量密度可达400 Wh/kg。整车企业固态电池产品布局如表1所示,电池企业固态电池产品布局如表2所示。
目前,常用的锂电池模型主要有电化学模型、等效电路模型、神经网络模型和热耦合模型,对其进行分析具有重要的工程应用价值,如表3所示。
等效电路模型适合实时控制,电化学模型和热耦合模型用于深度机理分析,神经网络模型在数据驱动场景中表现优异。实际应用中,常采用混合模型(如等效电路+神经网络模型)来平衡精度与效率。
分子动力学方法是通过对体系中各个原子的运动方程进行时间积分来追踪原子运动轨迹的一种模拟方法[2-3],分子动力学在传统锂电池建模仿真方面已取得了较好的进展,在全固态电池建模仿真领域正逐渐应用。Foroozan等[4]通过分子动力学方法研究了一种局限于玻璃纤维隔板的编织结构中的三维保形氧化石墨烯纳米片涂层,发现锂离子最初会吸附在亲锂的涂层上,通过缺陷部位扩散,这种延迟的锂转移消除了尖端效应。Deng等[5]使用密度泛函理论(density functional theory,DFT)和投影增广波方法进行离子相互作用,以获得不同化合物弹性张量的完整描述。
微观尺度模型在锂电池设计方面已取得了较好的应用进展。Franco等[6]做了一系列工作,建立了模拟锂离子电池制造过程并预测其电化学性能的多尺度仿真平台,该仿真平台涵盖了电极介观结构生成、网格划分、有限元或有限体积及格子玻尔兹曼方法(lattice Boltzmann method,LBM)和离散元方法(discrete element method,DEM)的数值模拟仿真应用,采用粗粒化分子动力学(coarse grained molecular dynamics,CGMD)模型用于浆料制备和电极干燥过程介观结构的生成,从电极制备工艺追溯模拟电极介观的生成,考虑了活性材料(active material,AM)和碳-黏结剂相(carbon-binder domain,CBD),可以评估CBD的空间位置及其对锂离子传输效果对整体电化学性能的影响。Hao等[7]开发了动力学蒙特卡罗(kinetic Monte Carlo,KMC)模型来求解电化学公式,并将其耦合到有限元解中,其中,KMC中的每个单元对应于一个有限元分析(finite element analysis,FEA)模型,以解释化学诱导的活性颗粒的体积变化。Yu等[8]利用光滑边界法(smooth boundary method,SBM)求解力学平衡,计算热膨胀和化学诱导变形引起的应力,展示了对热收缩和剥落产生的等效应力的代表性结果。Tian等[9]采用多尺度框架耦合DFT和相场模型,研究了具有微观结构和内部缺陷的固态电解质内部锂枝晶的萌生和生长,采用DFT计算方法对4种具有代表性的固态电解质进行表面电子态密度和内部缺陷中多余电子的分布研究,结果表明,表面电子态的存在作为多余电子的捕获机制,使表面缺陷处的锂金属沉积成为核[10]。从DFT结果中获得的表面多余电子浓度随后被纳入相场模型来研究枝晶演化的形态。
Ahmad和Viswanathan[11]意识到DFT计算中与计算平衡态周围能量相关的不确定性,并通过量化这种不确定性来改进先前的工作,对Li10GeP2S12、Na3PS4、LiI和Na3OCl这4种化合物的能量集合进行计算,获得了具有量化标准差的力学性能的概率分布,研究表明,电池运行过程中的机械现象在很大程度上取决于固态电解质材料的选择。虽然DFT模拟可以帮助克服复杂实验表征的需要,但考虑到潜在固态电解质化合物的大量组合,仍然相对耗时。加速固态电解质机械设计的一个可能途径是利用数据科学方法,机器学习模型提供了一种方法,将大分子中的原子与其相邻的对应物并置,给出其键合和相互作用的表示。同样,机器学习可以很容易地对大分子的能量或低精度和高精度计算之间的差异进行预测。机器学习特别适用于寻找稳定无害的锂电池电解质,还提供了在计算和大数据分析中降低数量级的解决方案。Ahmad等[12]通过使用机器学习技术扫描超过12000种无机固态电解质化合物的空间,确定具有最佳机械性能的化合物来抑制枝晶生长,从而扩展这项工作,但数据只针对化合物的结构特征进行训练,认为固态电解质的弹性特性是抑制枝晶的唯一主导因素。
分子动力学计算被广泛应用于全固态电池材料的微观特性仿真中,能够从原子尺度揭示离子扩散机制、界面稳定性及电极-电解质相互作用等关键物理化学过程,为材料性能优化提供理论支持。
在全固态锂电池中,电极-电解质界面是区别于传统液体电解质电池的关键,存在着亟待解决的问题:固态锂电池在充放电时,在空间电荷区附近可能会形成锂耗尽层,这将显著增大其界面迁移电阻[13-14];固-固界面在空间电荷分布的均匀性上也远不如固-液界面电荷分布的非均匀性,降低了全固态电池的循环稳定性[15-16];固态电解质可能会发生氧化或还原反应,由此进一步降低全固态锂电池的循环稳定性[17]。这些问题会导致全固态电池的循环性能、寿命等受限[18]。传统显微成像、材料分析表征等方法能够辅助揭示全固态电池界面失效演变机制,但建模方法仍是揭示全固态电池界面演变机制的关键方法[19]。
高比容正极材料是全固态电池的重要组成部分,其中,机械效应将起到关键作用[20]。在传统正极材料之外,目前复合电极的概念也越来越热。复合电极是指一种包含多种成分的电极结构,不仅包含电极活性材料,还包含固体电解质和导电剂。针对电极的建模,主要方法包括多孔电极理论和离散化处理。
多孔电极理论具有明显优势,可以产生计算效率高的解决方案,同时仍然保持对微观结构多孔性较为准确的描述。基于多孔电极理论[21]的电极材料建模,可以实现对电极复合特性的精准描述。Renganathan等[22]开发了一个全电池模型,将多孔电极理论用于2个电极,加强了传统的多孔电极理论,以解释应力对扩散的影响。Christensen[23]进行了类似分析,通过假设电极中存在一定程度的预先存在的裂缝,包括断裂的作用。Mykhaylov等[24]考虑了使用多孔电极理论的全固态结构,不考虑机械变形和应力,并为系统的性能实现了封闭形式或半封闭形式的解决方案。Ferguson等[21]基于详细的Cahn-Hilliard模型发展多孔电极理论,以解释活性颗粒中的相分离,通过考虑局部浓度与其体积平均量的变化,在化学势中引入应变的作用,通过分析,能够证明力学在抑制相分离和促进均匀填充方面的重要性。
多孔电极较为复杂,相关参数有几十个,为其建立完整的可映射的传输线模型(transmission line model,TLM)存在挑战。Zelič等[25]从浓溶液理论出发,经推导与映射,演绎得到嵌入电极的完整可视TLM,其响应与解析解保持一致,如图2所示。
在多孔电极理论基础上,需要开发有效的均质模型以分析固态复合材料正极的详细微观结构行为。通过计算效率高的模型,指导全固态电池的设计和开发,并确定下一代材料的前景分析。数据科学方法(机器学习等)很有可能在这些新的均质化工具的开发中发挥作用。
将微观结构或其代表性体积完全离散化,也能获得对电极的精准描述。Garcia等[26]开发了一种二维有限元描述详细的复合正极微观结构,其中,圆柱形颗粒耦合到隔膜和负极行为的简化模型,通过使用具有化学诱导应变的各向同性弹性活性颗粒来捕获机械变形。Xu等[27]进行了三维有限元模拟,以数值解析LiNixMnyCozO2(NMC)复合正极的微观结构,配合加速器X射线断层扫描,用于微观结构建模并验证模型预测,如图3所示,在该方法中,研究人员仍需要了解微观结构的关键实验描述,如粒度和形状分布。Bielefeld等[28]使用复合正极微观结构的三维描述来研究其渗透特性。
机械性能及结构损伤对固态正极性能的影响至关重要,需要开发具有可能的活性粒子失效、固态电解质失效和两者分层的综合效应的模拟方法。对于活性颗粒,已经针对许多不同的活性材料开发了耦合化学-力学模型,并开发了用于嵌入电极的模型[29]及用于转换电极的模型[30],包括失效模式和损伤的各个方面[31]。Bucci等[32]关注约束诱导应力如何使用解析方法和数值有限元模拟来改变电池性能,研究结果表明,随着电解质矩阵刚度的变化,硅与锂的开路电位会改变,增加基质刚度会导致更大的压应力,从而产生改变开路电位和降低存储容量的效果。Al-Siraj等[33]研究了正极成分中活性物质的临界体积分数的存在,结果表明,固态电解质的有效扩散系数随活性粒子体积分数的增加呈线性衰减,在临界体积分数以上,固态电解质的有效扩散系数可以忽略不计,从而限制了性能。Bucci等[34]开展了第一个关于力学损伤在复合材料全固态正极中作用的定量研究,内聚区建模用于捕获复合正极循环期间固态电解质中的损伤。伴随着耦合化学力学理论框架的有限元实现,研究人员已在二维和三维模拟中证明了锂离子形态受到机械变形的严重影响的方式[35]。近年来的研究表明,柔顺型固体结构有利于防止分层,而刚性固体结构有利于延缓微裂。近期,新建立的模型已被证明可以准确地预测单个颗粒的电化学性能,以及机械应变影响相偏析形貌的方式[36],甚至完全抑制[37]。
机械压力对锂离子电池正极材料的电化学性能影响主要体现在扩散速率和界面动力学2方面,具体影响机制如下:①压力对扩散速率的影响。Mussa等[38]发现机械压力会改变正极材料孔隙率和迂曲度,进而影响锂离子(Li+)在多孔电极中的扩散速率,实验表明,随着压力增加,锂离子在正极的扩散阻抗显著上升,尤其在高压(如1.98 MPa)下,扩散速率下降幅度可达40%以上,但适度压力(如1.32 MPa)可优化扩散条件,减少活性物质脱落,延缓容量衰降。②压力对界面动力学的影响。正极与隔膜间的界面阻抗也会因压力变化而波动。实验数据显示,当压力从0.66 MPa增至1.98 MPa时,正极界面阻抗先降后升,最佳压力为1.32 MPa。该现象与颗粒间接触面积变化及电解液渗透能力有关。
正极建模需重点考虑:①颗粒半径。压力改变颗粒形变程度,直接影响锂离子扩散路径长度。②孔隙率。压力导致孔隙结构塌陷,降低锂离子传输效率。③接触电阻。颗粒间接触紧密度影响电子传导效率[39]。
复合锂金属负极材料具有最低的还原电位(−3.04 V)和超高理论比容量(3860 mAh/g),远超传统的碳负极材料,但锂在负极和固态电解质界面的不稳定沉积可能会造成锂枝晶的形成和生长,降低电芯比能量的同时也带来安全风险。因此,了解锂的沉积/溶解机理、非均匀界面动力学下的不均匀沉积机制、锂枝晶的生长和蔓延机制具有重要意义。
锂离子在沉积过程中形态各异。基于主要结构、沉积机制及对锂电池性能的不同影响,锂枝晶的形态主要分为3种模式:针状、苔藓状和树状[40],如图4所示。针状枝晶会在横向和纵向方向上同时生长,当枝晶达到一定长度时就会戳破隔膜,造成内部短路,严重时可能导致锂电池发生爆炸。因此,针状锂枝晶是导致锂离子电池性能下降的主要原因之一。相比针状枝晶,苔藓状枝晶有更高的表面积,其枝晶直径较小,需要消耗更多的锂以形成固体电解质界面膜(solid electrolyte interface,SEI),并且苔藓状枝晶在被氧化过程中更容易断裂形成死锂。树状枝晶是最常见的锂枝晶生长模式,与针状枝晶和苔藓状枝晶不同,其可以向各个方向生长,是锂枝晶模拟的重要研究方向之一,这种树状枝晶也会带来各种危害,最常见的有短路和锂容量损失等问题。
目前,枝晶生长问题仍无法解决,但相关研究已经发现了能够抑制枝晶生长的策略,包括双极脉冲电流电荷法、界面优化、电解质改进等,对仿真理论方法与枝晶生长和抑制机理提供了更多的参考[41]。最早的枝晶生长模型由Barton和Bockris[42]提出,他们研究了硝酸银电解质中球形银沉积的电解生长,用公式描述了纯扩散控制下枝晶生长模拟过程,而不考虑离子物种在运输中的迁移影响。随着Chazalviel[43]和Brissot等[44]的工作,出现了枝晶生长的迁移限制传质公式。这些公式研究了高电压(10 V)下的金属电沉积,当电压的值达到限制电流密度的上限时,在该领域中电子不属于中性。枝晶起始的机制被规定为电极附近阴离子耗尽导致空间电荷积聚的直接结果。
研究人员围绕锂枝晶生长的描述做了大量工作。考虑力学与界面动力学的耦合作用,Monroe和Newman[45-46]提出了一个扩展的电沉积框架,该框架结合了外部压力、弹性变形和黏性应力的影响,并引入了描述界面的热力学相。从动量平衡开始,考虑到电极-电解质界面上的平衡条件,建立了由表面张力、压力、偏差和黏性等局部变形引起的电化学电位差的关系,并首先提出了一个电化学枝晶生长模型,将枝晶尖端曲率的影响纳入其枝晶生长反应动力学中。Akolkar[47]扩展了该模型,加入了浓度相关的扩散系数,并应用于液体电解质。Ganser等[48]开发了更通用的Butler-Volmer动力学耦合力学框架,影响界面反应的应力机械成分不必是静应力,而是在界面生长方向上的分解应力的测量,为模拟电沉积动力学中力学作用搭建了理论框架,为进一步模拟固态固体中枝晶生长创造了条件。Klinsmann等[49]用更完整的连续力学框架模拟了锂金属负极附近的锂化裂纹的进展,探讨了锂镀层在裂纹内形成的压力可以促进不稳定裂纹的扩展条件,也可以通过阻止锂的插入来阻碍不稳定裂纹的扩展,断裂扩展所需的临界压力随后被转化为等效的表面过电位状态,在该状态下,电池的安全运行得到了保证。Yu等[50]研究了微观结构特征在促进锂不均匀沉积和随后金属穿透固态电解质中的作用,假设晶界附近固态电解质的纳米级软化为锂的优先镀提供了一种机制,从而导致枝晶生长,考虑了固态电解质微观结构的异质性,在2个低能倾斜和扭转晶界上对具有代表性的固态电解质进行了分子动力学模拟,以测量电解质主体和晶界附近的弹性特性,与体相区域相比,在晶界处局部观察到弹性模量降低了50%。洪清和等[51]利用多物理面向对象仿真环境平台(multiphysics object oriented simulation environment,MOOSE),使用相场模型建立了仿真对象与研究界面,发现材料参数各向异性数值大时枝晶生长慢,但会有更多晶核生长为枝晶。
考虑力学与电沉积动力学的耦合作用,Barai等[52]考虑了枝晶起始形态域,将锂金属的初始结构修改为无应力,去除界面处的外部牵引力,可实现从松弛状态对早期枝晶生长行为进行建模,研究表明,无论电解质的剪切模量如何,锂的初始松弛状态都可以在低电流密度下阻止枝晶生长,并提出电解液中的电流分布是枝晶生长的主导因素。Natsiavas等[53]制定了弹性预应力存在下电极/固态电解质界面生长的详细框架,采用线性稳定性分析方法,研究了Li-LiPON系统的平面生长,以及稳定沉积的条件,作为应力状态、弹性模量、沉积动力学和界面能的函数,证实了预应力的存在对电极-电解质界面具有稳定作用。Ahmad和Viswanathan[54]假设了各向同性固-固界面电沉积的一般稳定性准则,扩展了先前公式,解释锂金属密度变化对界面电沉积稳定性的影响,并引入了一个额外的参数-体积比,以说明电极中锂的密度变化对固态电解质的影响。Ding等[55]应用碱金属离子添加剂提出了锂枝晶的屏蔽机制,并对锂枝晶生长形貌进行了仿真,利用碱金属离子的有效还原电位低于低浓度锂离子的机制,使其在锂离子沉积过程中能够稳定生长,迫使后来的锂离子进一步沉积到负极凸起的邻近区域,该策略可有效抑制锂离子连续生长。
上述建模工作的共同关键特征是依赖于弹性接口。锂金属负极表现为塑性,具有较低的同源温度,其塑性响应已成为近期许多实验研究的焦点。将塑性变形对电沉积动力学和枝晶生长的影响纳入理论框架的发展,刺激了计算研究工作的新途径。Schultz[56]利用锂金属的实验应力-应变数据,采用各向同性硬化$J_2 $塑性模型,但忽略了黏塑性效应。
虽然固态电解质的电化学和机械响应被认为是导致锂枝晶形成的主要因素,但锂电极的性质对于捕捉整体情况也很重要。Narayan和Anand[57]提出了锂的大变形弹-黏塑性模型,并根据纳米压痕数据计算出了模型中的材料参数,仿真结果表明,当锂和固态电解质相互机械推动时,锂枝晶可以被压平,锂可以渗透到固态电解质的腔中,如图5所示。为分析锂的流动在锂枝晶生长中的作用,Yang[58]引入了一个非牛顿流动模型来描述锂流动,并研究了锂球和锂晶须在电解质中的生长,结果表明,通过抑制循环诱导的应变能来缓解锂枝晶生长。
转换电极通常会发生非常大的弹性-非弹性变形,如已被广泛研究的硅基负极,其化学应变的数量级为100%[59]。目前,已经开发了连续统模型,该模型解释了伴随着物质扩散和化学应变的大弹性-非弹性变形[60]。对于一些简单的情况,已经开发了封闭形式的解析解。Bower等[61]开发了具有尖锐传播相边界的弹塑性球形颗粒经历扩散诱导变形问题的解析解。许多研究使用简化几何(即球形或径向对称)来简化为可以用数值方法解决的一维问题。Huang等[62]证明了在有无尖锐界面存在的情况下,应力在经历化学诱导的大弹塑性变形的球形颗粒中发展的方式。这些研究发现,由于非弹性变形和两相锂化的存在,表面上的环向应力可能是拉伸或压缩的,这对材料的断裂建模具有重要意义。
非晶硅因其作为高容量负极的潜力而得到了广泛研究。Anand[60]和Di Leo等[63]都校准了连续介质力学理论,并证明了预测简单非晶硅电极的电压与电荷行为及其力学行为的能力。Di Leo等[63]使用大变形弹塑性化学力学理论和有限元模拟来预测Wu等[64]实验实现的空心双壁纳米管的行为。Zhang等[65]使用基于变分的相场损伤模型来模拟非晶和晶硅电极的扩散诱导塑性和断裂,采用有效的时间积分方案,成功模拟了硅纳米颗粒和纳米柱的断裂,并研究了能量释放率对电极损伤行为的影响。
锂硫银锗矿型固态电解质是一种非常有前途的硫化物固态电解质,具有高离子电导率和良好的化学稳定性,其化学通式为Li6PS5X(X=Cl,Br,I)[66]。混合卤化物银柱石Li6PS5X(X=Cl0.75Br0.25,Cl0.5Br0.5,Cl0.25Br0.75)与单卤化物相相比,具有较高的离子电导率,不同结构形式的离子电导率和电子电导率如表4所示[67]。
De Klerk等[68]利用DFT分子动力学模拟,通过调整硫/卤化物比进一步提高了锂电导率,展示了由溶液工程合成方法制备的Li5.75PS4.75Cl1.25和Li5.5PS4.5Cl1.5的X射线衍射法(X-ray diffraction,XRD)尺度结果,主要成品为锂硫银锗矿型固态电解质,掺杂剂为Li3PO4、Li6PS5X、少量的Li2S和筛选过的LiCl,EIS结果显示,Cl-S比增大,Li5.75PS4.75Cl1.25和Li5.5PS4.5Cl1.5的离子电导率激增,离子电导率的增加和XRD标度表明,Cl取代了S,为锂硫银锗矿结构引入了锂离子空隙,从而提高了离子电导率。
Baktash等[69]基于人工智能技术,利用经验模态分解(empirical mode decomposition,EMD)和非平衡分子动力学模拟(non-equilibrium molecular dynamics,NEMD),在不同温度下对Li5PS4Cl2的扩散系数进行模拟,利用EMD和NEMD技术的精度,以及Arrhenius方程在300 K下的外推计算,对AI-EMD在300,600,800,1000 K下的45,40,20,20 ps的模拟进行了评估,利用EMD模拟的结果计算了锂离子的均方位移(mean square displacement,MSD)、10个模型的值及不同温度下的统计误差,并确保模拟时间(450~200 ps)足以区分锂离子的扩散。
假设Arrhenius行为,Baktash等[70]将无序构型电导率的经验值以正方形和三角形形式呈现,并报告了计算结果,通过对误差条的研究,计算出的拆装结构电导率的结果与Yu等[71]报道的当代经验结果一致。因此,无序结构的电导率比纯Li6PS5Cl结构高2个数量级。相应地,轻微的结构变化(包括替换104个原子中的4个)给电导率带来了相当大的改变。使用EMD模拟可以调节600 K下有序和无序锂离子结构的扩散机制(见图6)。比较2种方法,切换Cl和S离子的位置会导致无序,从而改变锂离子自由。
全固态电池存在固-固界面接触,界面两侧材料的低润湿性导致界面处产生接触面积损失,界面电阻显著增大,这对电池性能产生不利影响。因此,考虑界面接触面积损失对电池性能的准确模拟至关重要[72]。全固态电池中的复合电极主要由固态电解质包围的活性粒子组成。在循环充放电过程中,活性颗粒会随着锂离子的插入和提取而不断发生膨胀和收缩。在全固态电池中,活性粒子与固态电解质之间的界面处都伴随着高应力。诱导的高应力可能导致活性颗粒和固态电解质的破碎及其之间界面的分层,如图7所示。图中:SPE表示固体聚合物电解质,SCE表示复合固体电解质,CE表示复合正极,NCM表示镍钴锰酸锂。Lewis等[73]指出,在固态电池中,不需要的中间相必须是离子导电的,同时是电子绝缘的。因为电子导电的中间相允许原始固态电解质不受控制的反应,因此,允许这种不需要的混合相的不稳定生长。在实际应用中,形成电子绝缘界面,新混合物的低离子电导率导致电池的高电阻,是固态电解质的一大挑战[74]。Han等[75]关于提高固态电解质电阻的实验工作如图8所示。图中:W/O ALD表示未经过原子层沉积,SSE表示固态电解质。在全固态电池中,锂的连续电镀和剥离伴随着循环过程中体积的膨胀,导致界面形成空洞和部分分层。这种局部分层失去接触减慢了锂离子在界面上的传输,显著增加了阻抗[76]。
当前研究多基于一维模型对全固态电池进行性能仿真,但一维模型无法直观体现颗粒位置导致的电池性能差异,同时一维模型基于均相结构假设,而实际上电极通常难以做到完全均质化。因此,研究颗粒尺寸及间距对电池性能的影响,必须建立精确的电池微观尺度模型[77]。为研究固态电解质孔隙率、裂纹形式及界面接触面积对固态电池的影响,郝增辉等[78]利用电阻网络方法对固态电解质微观结构建模,建立了固态电池一维电化学耦合接触面积模型,构建了一维电化学与二维固态电解质电阻网络模型,并基于该物理模型进行了电化学阻抗谱仿真分析。Tian等[79]通过假设电流和锂浓度集中在接触区域,将不完美接触面积的影响纳入一维Newman电池模型,模拟了薄膜型Li/LiPON/LiCoO2全固态锂离子电池在不同速率和接触面积下的恒流放电过程,研究发现,在较低的截止电压下,相关性几乎呈线性,斜率为1,而在较高的截止电压下,下降速率较慢,应用Persson的接触力学理论,计算了薄膜型和块状全固态锂离子电池的接触面积和压力,该模型用于评估应施加多少压力来恢复因接触面积损失而导致的容量下降。Javed等[80]利用有限元方法定量讨论界面电子/离子转移对固态电池正极放电特性的影响,研究了活性材料/活性材料、活性材料/固态电解质和固态电解质/固态电解质界面电化学过程产生的电化学电阻,以及与活性材料表面缓冲层涂层相关的电化学电阻,通过验证LiCoO2(LCO)、LiNbO3和Li3.25Ge0.25P0.75S4(LGPS)分别作为活性材料、涂层材料和固态电解质的实验结果,确定了电化学模型中使用的各种界面参数。Xiong等[81]通过间隔为1 ms的时间分辨电位测量来解释电化学反应和离子扩散动力学,揭示了经典的Bulter-Volmer (B-V) 方程偏离了电流密度、过电位和离子浓度之间的实际关系,建立了一个界面离子插层反应模型,考虑了锂离子(脱)插层的过剩驱动力,如图9所示,仿真结果表明,模型能够准确预测各种活性材料在颗粒和电极尺度上的充放电情况。
采用三维电极结构的模拟可以允许在计算中更准确地反映结构的效果。接触面积和锂扩散距离与活性电极材料颗粒的聚集程度有关,且这种聚集的影响在全固态电池中比在液态电解质电池中更显著。因此,应将活性电极材料颗粒聚集的影响纳入全固态电池的模拟中,以确保高精度。阮海辉等[82]提出了一个将全固态电池的电化学过程和机械反应联系起来的模型,其中,空隙和裂缝的动力学是关键因素,模型仿真结果表明,空隙的增长是锂在界面和电极中不同扩散率导致分离的结果,引发了脱嵌锂过程中锂离子的非均匀分布,模拟揭示的裂纹和锂枝晶与实验观察非常相似,高堆积压力不能抑制裂纹和锂的渗透,但适当的侧向压应力可以防止硫化物固态电解质开裂,从而抑制锂枝晶的产生。
开发具有高锂离子导电率的新型固态电解质需要了解其锂离子迁移机制。关于硫化物固态电解质中锂离子迁移机制的研究,按照单离子跃迁理论,Yang等[83]认为其具有较低的锂振动频率,从而导致晶格内的锂离子具有较大位移振幅和较低的迁移能垒,同时,其体心立方结构提供了较大的离子传输通道[84],表现出非常高的离子电导率。Mo等[85]认为这种电解质的快速扩散是通过多个离子协同迁移来实现的,当高能量位置的离子向低能量位置跃迁时,会将邻位低能量位置的离子迁移能垒降低,多离子协同迁移可以降低能垒,进而提升电解质的锂离子电导率。张田[86]以PEO、PEO+SiO2、PEO+LGPS、PEO+LGPS+MoS2这4种固态电解质为对象,采用分子动力学和DFT这2种方法,从锂离子扩散系数、界面处离子径向分布函数、PEO玻璃化转变温度、陶瓷颗粒表面态密度、异质结中平面平均差分电荷曲线和MoS2对LGPS中锂离子结合能的影响等6个方面研究了复合电解质中锂离子传输特征及其背后原因。复合电极中的电荷输运限制与复合电极的离子/电子输运特性与复合正极内不同组分的比例及粒径、黏结剂与导电碳的种类、形貌及含量、混合/制备工艺等因素相关。近年来,由于模拟仿真技术的发展,相关研究开始增加,但目前还缺乏将制造参数与复合电极的微观结构和电化学性能相关联的计算模型,需要进一步结合电化学测量技术等开展定量研究[87]。
硫化物固态电解质因其高离子电导率和良好的机械性能,具有较大强度,可以防止锂凸出。“流体状”锂可以穿透强度大的固态电解质并使电池短路,这一违反直觉的事实也迫切需要一个相应的理论来理解这一现象。Tikekar等[88]假设离子输运不是反应,而是锂沉积的限制因素,当锂离子到达锂电极表面时,可以在现场立即还原,因此,沉积在锂表面的锂的数量是由化学电位梯度驱动的通量而不是B-V方程型反应控制的,基于该模型,发现通过在隔膜中固定一小部分阴离子并使用具有中等剪切模量的固态电解质,可以在电解质中实现稳定的电沉积。Mistry和Mukherjee[89]讨论了锂体输运和表面反应之间的竞争效应,发现固态电解质中的锂摩尔体积与锂负极中的锂摩尔体积之间的不匹配是导致电沉积不稳定的根本原因,而不是固态电解质的刚度。Ganser等[90]采用严格的电化学-力学描述体输运和界面反应动力学来预测界面稳定性,研究结果表明,电解质的刚度和输运性质对界面稳定性同样重要,应在电化学性能和力学性能之间找到一个正确的权衡,而不是无条件地增加固态电解质的刚度。
结合硫化物固态电解质离子输运机制的最新研究发现,离子输运机制的核心矛盾已从晶格扩散转向界面工程,技术聚焦于“掺杂+包覆+原子层沉积”综合方案。硫化物电解质通过晶体骨架中的三维锂离子扩散通道实现离子迁移,Song等研究发现,掺杂稀土元素可将离子电导率提高到10−2 S/cm级别,原因是稀土离子扩大了晶格间距,可降低锂离子迁移能垒[91]。但是,固-固接触界面缺陷会阻碍离子运输[92],环境湿度过大会使硫化物遇水分解产生硫化氢破坏晶体结构和阻塞离子通道[93],这2种因素都会导致离子传输速度下降。
固态电解质在运行中面临破碎的可能,除界面形成引起的应力及其对扩散和反应驱动力的影响外,破坏的一个关键机制是裂纹的形成和扩展。目前,文献中固态电解质破裂的现有模型基本没有。然而,有许多研究致力于电极颗粒中裂纹扩展的建模,这可以作为解决裂纹存在下固态电解质化学力学问题的基础。在力学界有一些模型,从中可以得出有用的界面生长公式,因为它们描述的物理现象与全固态电池中的界面反应有相似之处。这些现有公式与模拟全固态电池现象的主要区别在于控制每个反应的不同化学驱动力。
为捕捉固态电解质的整体力学行为,Ganser等[94]提出了热力学一致的宿主材料输运理论,使用亥姆霍兹能量公式,该公式考虑了物质输运、弹性变形和静电,扩展了Newman和Balsara[95]的浓溶液理论,以纳入力学效应,将公式专门用于二元电解质的情况。Bucci等[96]提出了类似的热力学一致处理方法,模拟了晶格中的离子传输。上述模型为模拟固体中的离子输运提供了基础,然而这些工作忽略了相间形成和生长的基本物理规则,即反应诱导的结构相变及与机械变形和应力相关的耦合。在固态电解质中,引起机械降解的是新形成的间相的反应引起的力学效应及其相关的化学和结构相变[97]。
固态电解质中间相离子电导率较低,还存在关键机械问题,特别是与导致新相的反应相关的体积膨胀,这种体积膨胀发生在受限的全固态结构中,会引入内应力,导致可能的断裂和降解。Tippens等[97]使用X射线断层扫描显示了Li1.4Al0.4Ge1.6(PO4)3(LAGP)固体电解质中裂纹的形成,认为这些裂纹的存在和随后的接触损失导致了电池运行中的高阻抗,而不是界面本身的输运性质,同时还利用化学-力学连续体理论[98]研究了上述固态电池中的应力分布。
针对活性粒子的损伤,已经建立了相场损伤模型,这些模型可以将裂纹退化参数作为化学变量集的附加内部变量,同时考虑到裂纹的起裂和扩展。Miehe等[99]提出了有限应变化学弹性理论与相场建模相结合来研究锂离子电极颗粒的断裂,正则化裂纹模型使用破坏表面的主应力准则和退化函数来破坏存储的能量和物质在裂纹面上的迁移率。Yamakawa等[100]研究了断裂扩展对力学的影响,以及随后对LiCoO2多晶颗粒中锂浓度和相分离的影响,估计了晶粒尺寸和晶体取向对断裂程度的影响。Anand等[101]开发了一种替代的基于热力学的损伤模型。Shi等[102]表明,活性材料体积分数提高后,固态电解质相必须仍保持连续的离子传输网络,否则会出现离子渗流不足和活性材料利用率下降。Bucci等[103]基于断裂内聚理论推导出了一个解析模型,并表示减小粒径无助于避免活性颗粒的界面分层,当活性颗粒的体积变化达到7.5%左右时,界面分层就会开始,顺应性固态电解质(弹性模量E<25 GPa)可以适应体积变化并延迟界面分层的发生。Barai等[104]建立了多尺度数学模型,将正极材料的摩尔体积变化、正极与LLZO的弹性性质、界面断裂阈值和界面反应动力学,与分层面积、阻抗增长和容量衰减联系起来,研究结果表明,减小活性材料的有效体积变化、降低固态电解质刚度及提高界面断裂强度,均有利于缓解正极/固态电解质界面分层。Rezaei等[105]建立了一个更全面的化学-机械耦合内聚破裂模型,表明该模型可用于研究全固态电池中主要的降解机制,如活性颗粒内部的晶间破碎。Fathiannasab等[106]基于复合电极的重构形貌建立了化学-力学模型,阐明了颗粒/电解质界面和空隙空间对锂化诱导应力演化的影响,发现空隙可以通过容纳活性颗粒的膨胀来缓解应力的形成,采用外压改善离子通路可能导致断裂,而刚度较低的固态电解质会使复合电极中的应力松弛,加剧活性颗粒的各向异性位移。Wan等[107]研究表明,界面应力也会因界面处的强电场而增强。
在了解固态电解质力学行为的过程中,研究和模拟固态电解质本身的力学行为和性能十分有必要,因为电解质的弹性、塑性和断裂性能决定其如何响应枝晶生长、由界面形成引起的应力、裂纹扩展和其他相关的力学问题[108]。Wang等[109]将LGPS与Li4P2S7和Li3P7S11共同研究,与LGPS的四边形结构不同,它们具有三斜结构,研究表明,LGPS具有更高的弹性常数, LGPS的Pugh模量比为2.12,表明了其相对延展性。Yang等[110]对Li3PS4的2个β相和γ相进行了详细研究,表明γ相是比β相更硬的材料,2种材料均表现出相对的延展性,γ相和β相的Pugh模量比分别为2.26和2.89。
研究表明,锂/固态电解质界面特征在锂枝晶形成中起到关键作用,而不是固态电解质的体积性质。高剪切模量并不能保证无枝晶的电池体系;相反,增加锂/固态电解质界面的附着力可以帮助缓解枝晶问题,这可以通过电池层面的外部压力来实现。Zhang等[111]确定了至少20 MPa的首选堆叠压力,可以减少空隙体积并保持相对较小的界面阻力。Tu等[112]分析了影响界面稳定性的因素,如固态电解质中的堆压、界面电荷传递系数和传质速率,结果表明,低堆压(3~5 MPa)对界面沉积几乎没有影响,但低离子电导率和低界面面积比电阻会增加锂沉积的不均匀性。Verma等[113]利用并开发了该模型来辨别外部堆叠压力对多晶/非晶固体电解质结构中界面不稳定性的影响,固态电解质的微观结构包括晶粒、晶界和孔洞,其特征是有效输运和力学参数,结果表明,外部压力、高温和低表面粗糙度可以实现稳定沉积。
预先存在的裂纹也可能作为缺陷点发挥作用,可能会促进锂枝晶在那里生长。Porz等[114]发现固态电解质由于晶体表面细小的划痕而无法抵抗锂枝晶的传播,与单晶的剪切模量无关,锂离子会在晶粒表面楔开先前存在的缺陷,建立了锂填充裂纹扩展的一维电化学力学模型,并解释了填充锂产生的压力足够大,可以通过Griffith样裂纹扩展穿透脆性固态电解质,如图10所示。Barroso-Luque等[115]建立了电沉积诱发塑性流动的数学模型,该模型表明在孤立缺陷处沉积产生的压力最大值由边界牵引势决定。Yuan等[116]提出了用于裂纹扩展和锂枝晶生长的耦合电化学-机械相场模型,发现在10 MPa以上的堆积压力和较长且边缘、角度锐利的缺陷都能促进裂纹扩展和枝晶生长。同时,Yuan等[117]还考虑了电池模型、力学模型、相场模型和短路模型,建立了基于物理的全耦合电化学-力学模型,模型显示,高充电率和固态电解质的低电导率会加速电池的电化学失效,因为过电位驱动的应力促进了裂纹中的枝晶生长并渗透到固态电解质中。Shishvan等[118]提出了一种新的机制,将枝晶生长视为一种攀爬边位错,这种位错可以在没有过量锂+恒定化学势的情况下自发发生,进入枝晶尖端的锂+通量提供的自由能足以使枝晶生长,枝晶的生长速率也可以通过模型计算得到[119]。
多尺度建模方法在全固态锂电池中关键材料(正极、负极、固态电解质)及其界面特性的状态描述和性能分析中发挥了重要作用,可表征界面失效机制、材料微观结构演化、离子输运行为、应力与断裂行为等关键行为,为全固态电池的综合性能仿真分析提供了理论支撑。
全固态电池作为一种典型的电化学储能系统,涵盖多种电化学反应、质量传递、电荷传递及热量传递等物理化学过程[120]。先进实验手段在一定程度上可以阐明电池材料对电池性能的作用机理,但存在单一变量难以控制、重复性操作多、试验周期长、试错成本高的局限性,特别是难以形成材料设计对电池评估的直观认识[121]。随着计算机技术的飞速发展,特别是基于有限元、有限体积、有限差分等数值仿真技术的日趋完善,建立数学物理模型并通过数值模拟求解已成为分析和解决复杂多物理场、开展产品预估、设计及优化的重要途径[122]。
传统锂电池采用P2D模型作为电化学仿真基础,可通过有效的微结构参数、活性物质的球坐标2个步骤将复杂的三维微结构分解为计算方便的二维系统,虽然无法直接应用于全固态电池,但也为全固态电池电化学模型的建立提供了理论依据。
Danilov等[123]首次建立了用于描述全固态电池体系的一维电化学模型,模型包含了界面电荷转移动力学、锂在电极中的扩散、锂离子在固态电解质中的扩散和迁移,但该模型并未深入探讨电极设计与电化学行为的关系。Zhang等[124]建立了一维全固态电池的数学方程用来对电池进行状态估计。Kazemi等[125]根据电化学实验结果构建了浓度相关的正极扩散系数,进一步提高了模型精度。李学鹏[126]采用Comsol建立全固态锂电池计算模型,仿真分析了全固态电池的充放电特性,研究了各种放电电流下的电压损失,仿真结果表明,较高的放电电流会使电极处的平衡浓度偏差较大,随着放电速率的增加,锂的浓度梯度变化变得更陡峭,电池能量耗尽前电压急剧下降以获得更高的放电率。
Ansah等[127]开展了基于有限元模拟的固态锂离子电池参数综合研究,提出了数值模型来研究一些参数以优化固态电池性能,该模型考虑了锂离子在电极、电解质中的扩散及固态电池内的电化学反应,结果发现,增加正极厚度会增加电池容量,而减少电解质厚度则会提高电池的容量,如图11所示。
电池电化学行为通常会导致正极和负极发生体积膨胀或收缩,而体积变化引起的应力反过来会影响电化学行为,应力通常受电化学和热场影响。除之前提到的颗粒断裂、界面分层等机械降解,应力对锂离子的传输和电化学反应都有显著影响[128]。应力可以增强锂向颗粒内部的扩散,促进快速嵌入,这一现象对硫化物电解质全固态电池效应更为明显,在外部施加应力下,离子扩散和迁移速率会被改善[129]。
准确分析全固态电池中的离子传输对于提高和评估性能至关重要。对于硫化物全固态电池,需要耦合应力和电场模拟,因为电池是加压的,这会影响空隙空间,进而影响离子传输。Kodama等[130]提出了一种通过耦合非线性应力分析和电场分析来分析加压全固态电池离子电导率的新方法,非线性应力分析可以估算固体电解质的应力分布,发现源自孔隙的非线性应力-应变特性随着压力的增加而减小。
涉及力-电化学耦合的全固态电池高精度建模近年来备受关注,得到了较好的发展。Grazioli等[131-132]建立了固体电解质的力-电化学耦合模型,给出了均匀平面电池在恒流条件下的解析解,力学性能对电解质电导率有很大影响,电解质静电位预测值差异甚至高达38%,这表明在电池设计过程中应考虑应力和变形的影响。Ganser等[94]拓展了浓溶液理论,提出了基于亥姆霍兹能的固态电解质力学-电化学耦合理论,考虑了静电学、组分传输和非线性弹性力学间的相互作用。Bistri等[133]制定并从数值模拟上实现了力学-电化学本构框架,该框架捕获了电极微观结构中复杂的化学-机械多粒子相互作用。Song等[134]提出了考虑物种扩散、界面转移动力学和机械变形的全固态锂离子薄膜电池力学-电化学耦合模型,该模型考虑了物种扩散、界面转移动力学和机械变形,将具有LiCoO2正极、石墨负极和聚合物固态电解质的全固态薄膜电池应用于模拟过程,以研究弯曲效应,结果表明,薄膜电池可以向正极弯曲以增强锂化能力,并降低电极/电解质界面处的应力。
电极或固态电解质的机械稳定性不佳会造成电池的电化学性能大幅下降,正极材料在锂离子脱嵌时会发生相变或晶格膨胀/收缩,体积效应导致正极材料与导电剂的界面在充放电过程中不断生成-破碎,消耗可迁移的锂离子,使电池容量下降;同时,正极材料在充放电时体积变化会造成其与导电剂和集流体发生剥离,使电池阻抗大幅上升[135]。Bucci等[34]利用力聚区模型对因正极材料体积变化导致全固态电池正极侧产生裂纹的行为进行模拟,如图12所示,证实了只有具备低断裂能和高体积变化的正极材料才会使全固态电池正极侧在充放电过程中产生裂纹,并使其在正极侧蔓延传播。图中,SE表示固态电解质与碳混合物。
目前,围绕全固态电池仿真已开展了一些研究工作,但其仿真建模基础理论仍相对薄弱,特别是基于传热、应力、电化学等多个物理场耦合建模方面还没有全面认识。电池系统在充放电时将同时发生多个物理化学过程,如电场驱动的迁移过程、浓度场驱动的扩散过程、电化学场驱动的电荷转移过程、温度场驱动的传热过程及应力场驱动的形变(应变)过程等,而以上过程又相互影响,互相制约。因此,有必要考虑全固态电池工作中经历的各种物理化学过程,建立考虑热-力-电化学耦合的精确仿真模型,进而实现电池性能的精准预测。在多物理场耦合仿真中,电压变量作为关键物理量,其处理方式需根据具体耦合机制和场景进行针对性设计。对于简单的系统,可以直接将2个物理场进行耦合,以关键参数作为耦合元素;对于复杂的系统,建议采用模块化建模,先单场验证,再逐步耦合。
1993年,Doyle和Newman等[136]设计了P2D模型,通过简化厚度方向,采用分段线段的方式代表电池不同结构,从而以一维尺度进行分析,设定平行电极方向各部分属性一致,正负极颗粒是大小一致的球形,仅考虑颗粒内部径向的扩散等假设,能够准确地模拟出充放电过程中电荷和离子的传输。Fabre等[137]开发了Li/LiPON/LiCoO2全固态薄膜微电池的数学模型,其是等温、一维的,考虑了锂在正极中的扩散和电子迁移、锂离子在固体电解质中的迁移及电极/电解质界面处的电荷转移动力学,使用各种电化学技术,如恒电流间歇滴定技术和电化学阻抗谱,将输入参数的温度依赖性引入模型,从而预测微电池在不同温度下的运行情况。Pang等[138]建立了固态锂电池电化学-热耦合模型,比较了并联和串联2种单体连接方式的产热量及能量密度,串联电池的平均温升为33.91 K,其焦耳热高达146 W/m2,而并联电池的平均温升仅为18.51 K,其焦耳热可忽略不计,并且并联具有更高的能量密度,研究结果表明,全固态电池的生热特性与液态锂电池相似,电化学反应过程中会产生不可逆极化热与可逆熵热,进而由于温度不均匀性而产生热应力。在单个活性颗粒开发的理论框架的基础上,模拟全电池行为的第一个进展是考虑使用固体电极的半电池或全电池模型。Wan等[107]开发了一种半电池连续化学力学模型,包括对正极、负极、静电场和电化学反应的机械变形和应力的考虑。孙哲韬等[139]基于Comsol软件对LPON基全固态电池体系进行了仿真,利用电流分布完成了固体电解质传质模型的建立,利用电极表面仿真负极的反应表面,再利用稀物质传递加上电极表面模块完成了整个电池电化学体系的构建,结合固体力学与固体传热进行多物理场耦合,完成了对体系应力及温度的仿真与监控,仿真结果表明,全固态电池体系的浓度梯度、应力预分布、传热传质过程的控速步骤与充放电过的体积变化等都会对电池的性能与安全管理产生不同的影响。Bower等[140]推导了控制锂离子半电池中变形、应力和电流的连续场方程和本构方程,考虑了通过系统的质量输运、阳极和阴极的变形和应力、静电场及电极/电解质界面上的电化学反应,该模型用于预测一维半电池模型电池中应力和电势的变化,如图13所示。
为建立具有复合正极电极的全固态电池的电化学模型,张希等[141]创新性地考虑了2个固态电池属性:不完美的固-固接触界面和电极、电解质界面处的空间电荷层,为提高模型的准确性,引入依赖于活性物质中锂浓度的可变离子扩散系数,如图14所示,研究结论包括:①通过拉普拉斯变换与帕德近似方法获取了降阶传递函数,降低了模型的计算复杂性而不影响准确性;②研究采用实验数据,验证了不同工况下模型的预测能力,在15个工况范围内,模型与实验的平均均方根误差为19.5 mV,弛豫结束时的平均误差为2.8 mV;③通过一些关键参数的敏感性分析,发现正极颗粒内部的浓差极化和界面反应引起的过电势,是限制固态电池性能的因素。Fang等[142]为深入了解电解质老化对电池衰退的影响机制,建立了一个连续体模型,用于定量分析锂电池在时间老化过程中的容量演变,模拟揭示了电解质老化引起的容量退化现象,还详细探讨了放电速率、工作温度、电解质中锂盐浓度及电解质厚度的影响。Bates等[143]提出了一种模拟方法,用于研究材料和几何形状对锂离子固态电池性能的影响,可以轻松探索不同的材料特性和电池几何形状,以优化锂离子固态电池的性能,该仿真能够显示放电循环中任何时候的放电曲线、热通量、锂离子浓度、电子和固体锂。
三维全固态锂离子电池的演示一直是电池界众多研究人员的长期目标。Talin等[144]描述了使用与半导体器件工艺兼容的材料和薄膜沉积方法制造的三维全固态电池的实验测试和模拟,这些三维电池由硅微柱组成,电池层使用物理气相沉积顺序沉积在硅微柱上,三维电池的功率性能明显落后于类似制备的平面电池,使用有限元建模对实验结果进行分析表明,功率性能差的根源是三维电池的结构不均匀性,再加上正极中电解质离子电导率和扩散速率低,导致内部电流密度分布高度不均匀,正极利用率低。
全固态电池电芯层面的建模和仿真主要体现在电化学特性、力学特性,并且可以进行多物理场耦合来实现对实际工况的高精度模拟,通过系统分析不同模型在揭示材料设计、界面行为、应力响应及多场耦合机制中的应用与局限,可为全固态电池的性能优化与结构设计提供理论支撑与仿真依据。
本文总结了全固态电池特性建模和仿真的研究进展,重点聚焦于高比容量正极、复合锂金属负极、硅基负极材料、固态电解质的微观结构建模与仿真,全固态电池电化学性能、力学性能等,并在固态电解质材料微观结构、界面特性、离子输运机制、诱导应力和断裂、力学特性等方面开展了专题分析。现有研究成果有力支撑了对全固态电池工作机理的揭示和分析,并指导了全固态电池研发设计。
展望未来全固态电池建模与仿真工作,还有以下几个方面可以开展持续研究:
1) 正极材料。复合正极将在全固态电池中发挥关键作用,对其耦合机械-化学行为的研究尚处于起步阶段,许多研究途径仍有待探索。
① 对实验相关的三维固态正极微观结构进行详细的连续体建模,并考虑微观结构的损伤和破坏行为对正极电化学性能和力学性能的影响。
② 在直接模拟实验相关微观结构的背景下,改进微观结构相关相的本构描述,提出模拟代表性体积单元的适当边界条件,对各向异性特性、热力学行为、非弹性变形等现象进一步揭示。
2) 负极材料。复合锂金属负极仍面临锂枝晶生长、沉积不均匀等问题,通过下述手段可持续改善。
① 针对锂金属黏塑性变形和塑性流动对电沉积动力学的影响进行建模,基于锂金属本构理论模拟应力在枝晶生长区域附近发展的方式,揭示应力与生长动力学的耦合作用,并开展实验验证结合。
② 建立完全耦合的电化学-力学模型,模拟固态电解质中枝晶的形成和生长行为。
③ 与固态电解质微观结构协同考虑,描述锂枝晶生长及在固态电解质中传播的规律,重点是考虑固态电解质缺陷、裂纹和晶界的存在,这些缺陷、裂纹和晶界可以作为锂枝晶的成核和生长位点。
④ 为模拟锂负极/固态电解质界面上的空洞形成和接触损失,建立微观尺度的孔隙形成和生长机制的模型,并考虑宏观尺度的界面变形和形态演化,将空洞的形成和形态变化与界面处的阻抗增加联系起来。
3) 固态电解质。固态电解质建模还处于起步阶段,特别是对负极/固态电解质界面形成的界面相进行建模对于理解应力产生、断裂和分层至关重要,目前还没有针对这种现象的有效模型。
① 从建模角度捕捉相间形成和演化现象仍然是固态电解质实现的挑战之一,需要建立能够适应化学诱导相变的扩散变形反应理论,以解决固态电解质中相间形成的问题。
② 针对固态电解质损伤和断裂行为的建模,该模型考虑能够以阻抗增加的形式捕获机械退化和电化学退化。
③ 在筛选高离子电导率、高可加工性、低成本的固态电解质时,使用完全耦合的化学-力学连续体模型作为基础,结合人工智能、机器学习等手段,将从完全耦合的化学-机械连续体模型中获得的结果作为特征添加到神经网络等数据科学方法的训练空间中,高效地训练筛选出合适的固态电解质材料。
④ 建立描述负极/固态电解质处形成空隙和失去接触行为的模型,以掌握相关材料特性、微观结构特征和操作要求,减少固态电解质失效。
⑤ 加强固态电解质中间相形成反应动力学理论和模型的研究,能够匹配化学诱导相变的扩散变形反应行为。
虽然针对全固态电池分子动力学计算、关键材料及界面特性、电化学性能等开展了不少研究工作,对其工作机理等进行了一定揭示,但目前全固态电池仍有大量科学问题和工程化问题尚未解决,距离大规模产业化还有不少时间。
为进一步提升全固态电池性能,应继续深入探索以下共性科学问题及工程化问题:
1) 开展理论计算分析失效机制研究,可以理论计算分析电池机理,为原理分析提供强有力的辅助证据,也可以在没有强有力的表征方法的支持下提供相对可靠的预测分析手段。
2) 开发新的表征方法,探究硫化物基全固态电池中存在的大量未明确的机理性问题。硫化物基全固态锂电池由于硫化物电解质空气不稳定特性,使得其表征手段较为单一,需要丰富其表征手段。
3) 在低N/P比下,提高正极、负极材料的利用率和性能,提高电池容量和稳定性。正极侧,正极混料中、正极与电解质层间引入稳定性更高的电解质,隔绝电解质与高电压活性材料直接接触,避免两者间的副反应发生。负极侧,改性锂金属负极表面,引入能稳定硫化物电解质层的缓冲物质,改善电解质和锂金属的稳定性。
4) 合成具有优异空气稳定性且离子电导率较高的硫化物电解质。目前,硫化物固态电解质的合成路径还比较复杂,合成条件要求较高,需要开发简单高效、重复性高且适合大批量制备的合成方法,为其在全固态电池规模化应用提供保障。
5) 通过改善现有工艺或开发新工艺制备机械性能优异且薄的电解质膜。结合电解质的高室温锂离子电导率,可采用液相法或干混法来制备超薄的电解质薄膜,兼顾高性能及高安全。
6) 全固态电池生产工艺优化及专用设备开发。将全固态电池的组装工艺与当前的液态电池制备工艺相结合,基于当前电池组装技术,设计适合全固态电池的制备工艺和路线,对于降低固态电池成本和推动实用化进展意义重大。

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2026年第52卷第10期
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doi: 10.13700/j.bh.1001-5965.2025.0322
  • 接收时间:2025-05-27
  • 首发时间:2026-10-30
  • 出版时间:2026-10-31
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  • 收稿日期:2025-05-27
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    1北京航空航天大学 交通科学与工程学院,北京 100191
    2中国汽车工程学会,北京 100176
    3重庆大学 机械与运载工程学院,重庆 400044

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鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
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