Article(id=1322941317252259982, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, issueId=1322941226537857309, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.13700/j.bh.1001-5965.2025.0518, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1753286400000, receivedDateStr=2025-07-24, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1757606400000, acceptedDateStr=2025-09-12, onlineDate=1793343389094, onlineDateStr=2026-10-30, pubDate=1793376000000, pubDateStr=2026-10-31, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1793343389094, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-10-30, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1793343389094, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1793343389094, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1322941226537857309, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, year='2026', volume='52', issue='10', pageStart='3237', pageEnd='3676', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1793376000000', pubDateStr='2026-10-31', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1793343367466, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1793344760378, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1322947068926505286, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, issueId=1322941226537857309, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1322947068926505287, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, issueId=1322941226537857309, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=3237, endPage=3275, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1322941317457780879, articleId=1322941317252259982, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, language=EN, title=Progress in compact and rapid heat transfer technology for precooled engines, columnId=null, journalTitle=Journal of Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Compact and rapid heat transfer technology can, within ultra-confined spaces and on the order of milliseconds, efficiently capture and transport large amounts of heat from the intake or internal components. It is the core determinant of both performance and technical success for a precooled engine. Conventional civil use heat exchanger analysis, design procedures, and experimental testing approaches are insufficient for validation due to the harsh operating environment and demanding performance requirements inside such systems. Therefore, conducting highly targeted, application oriented research on compact and rapid heat transfer technology specifically for precooled engines carries significant academic and engineering value. In this paper, the research progress of compact and rapid heat transfer technology from multiple dimensions, including underlying mechanisms, technical approaches, and experimental methods, is systematically reviewed, and the principal challenges it faces when applied to precooled engines are analyzed. Existing studies have yielded extensive and in-depth results in several areas: the mechanisms of rapid and intensive heat transfer of supercritical working fluids in microscale channels and cross-flow tube bundles; rapid simulation and similarity analysis methods for fluids with sharply varying properties; refined and uncertainty quantification based design methodologies; and experimental testing techniques tailored for extreme thermal environments in confined spaces, etc. Overall, in terms of fundamental research, it is urgent to deepen our understanding of the coupled flow heat transfer mechanisms under complex thermal conditions at micro scales and to further enrich high accuracy empirical correlation databases for compact and rapid heat transfer. From an analysis and design perspective, attention should be paid to integrating emerging techniques into analysis and design methods to enhance overall performance across broad operating ranges. In terms of experimental validation, more sophisticated flow-field measurement techniques appropriate for intricate structures in confined spaces must be developed, and complete temperature and full pressure testing must be conducted under actual engine installation circumstances. These research efforts will provide a solid foundation for improving the maturity of compact and rapid heat transfer technology and for advancing and validating precooled engine technology.

, authors=Yifan WANG1, Hui LI2, Yiming CHEN1, 3, Chao FU1, 3, Zhengping ZOU1, 3, *, authorsList=Yifan WANG, Hui LI, Yiming CHEN, Chao FU, Zhengping ZOU, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Zhengping ZOU, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
E-mail:
, copyrightStatement=Copyright © 2026 Journal of Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1322941329919058158, articleId=1322941317252259982, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, language=CN, title=强预冷发动机用紧凑快速强换热技术进展, columnId=null, journalTitle=北京航空航天大学学报, columnName=, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

紧凑快速强换热技术可在超紧凑空间、毫秒级极短时间内高效收集-转移发动机进气或内部大量热量,是决定强预冷发动机性能优劣与技术成败的核心关键,其内部极端工作环境及苛刻性能需求导致传统民用换热器的分析与设计方法难以适用、实验测试手段也难以满足其验证需求。因此,围绕强预冷发动机应用开展适用性强、针对性高的紧凑快速强换热技术研究,具有重要的学术价值与工程意义。基于此,从机理、技术与实验等多个维度,系统综述了紧凑快速强换热技术的研究进展,并分析了该技术在强预冷发动机应用中面临的主要挑战。现有研究已取得了广泛而深入的成果,包括超临界工质在微尺度通道与横掠管束中的快速强换热机理、快速仿真与强变物性工质相似性分析方法、不确定性与精细化设计方法及面向紧凑空间极端热环境的实验测试手段等。总体来看,在基础研究方面,亟须深入理解微小尺度复杂热环境下流动换热耦合机理,进一步完善紧凑快速强换热的高精度经验关联数据库;在分析与设计方面,应关注融合新兴手段的紧凑快速强换热分析及设计方法,以提升紧凑快速强换热在宽工作范围内的整体性能;在实验验证方面,有必要进一步发展适用于狭小空间复杂结构的精细化流场测试方法,并在真实装机匹配条件下开展全温全压实验验证。上述研究将为提升紧凑快速强换热技术成熟度、推动强预冷发动机技术发展与验证提供坚实支撑。

, authors=王一帆1, 李辉2, 陈一鸣1, 3, 付超1, 3, 邹正平1, 3, *, authorsList=王一帆, 李辉, 陈一鸣, 付超, 邹正平, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=邹正平, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
E-mail:
, copyrightStatement=版权所有 © 2026 北京航空航天大学学报(自然科学版)编辑部, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=YP5IGHXVyovXt9HjkTofew==, magXml=ku6HxMOAev9zEFvo/Vvyfw==, pdfUrl=null, pdf=QL9naLiwCxYp14QF02Coiw==, pdfFileSize=126319194, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=9WQJLwyOkK3lbBUARBgKnw==, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=pHl3bkKg4g3taLoq9fYe1A==, mapNumber=null, fund=null)}, authors=[Author(id=1322941330531426553, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941317252259982, orderNo=0, firstName=null, middleName=null, lastName=null, nameCn=null, orcid=null, stid=null, country=null, authorPic=null, dead=0, email=null, emailSecond=null, emailThird=null, correspondingAuthor=0, authorType=1, ext={EN=AuthorExt(id=1322941330812444923, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, 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caption=强预冷器及甲醇喷射抑霜装置结构[224], figureFileSmall=adLCFN2NexlxQIDxnlN8cw==, figureFileBig=PHmYFylZwctDi5MYyGfarA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1322941340358680915, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941317252259982, language=EN, label=Fig. 26, caption=Study on growth patterns and influencing factors of frost layers[225], figureFileSmall=eVd5NzByGrR+c3yXV5zMHw==, figureFileBig=+b13NjaERxTg9CEyxVdNuw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1322941340421595476, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941317252259982, language=CN, label=图26, caption=霜层生长模式及影响规律研究[225], figureFileSmall=eVd5NzByGrR+c3yXV5zMHw==, figureFileBig=+b13NjaERxTg9CEyxVdNuw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1322941340501287253, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941317252259982, language=EN, label=Fig. 27, caption=Comparison of pulsed airflow before and after defrosting[223], 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caption=Beihang University team’s research and experimental platform for high-performance pre-coolers, figureFileSmall=7CXFKBw6yRaChsPEUuFU7A==, figureFileBig=zXM9WEIas5MwKGOU1WKglQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1322941342954955104, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941317252259982, language=CN, label=图32, caption=北航团队强预冷器研究实验平台, figureFileSmall=7CXFKBw6yRaChsPEUuFU7A==, figureFileBig=zXM9WEIas5MwKGOU1WKglQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1322941343017869665, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941317252259982, language=EN, label=Fig. 33, caption=Different types of compact heat exchangers[260], figureFileSmall=3uPjdqPB7BzTnTwhBrQvvA==, figureFileBig=DnerL4ZcfugWo1yMh9qCkw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1322941343105950050, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941317252259982, language=CN, label=图33, caption=不同形式紧凑式换热器[260], figureFileSmall=3uPjdqPB7BzTnTwhBrQvvA==, figureFileBig=DnerL4ZcfugWo1yMh9qCkw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1322941343168864611, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941317252259982, language=EN, label=Table 1, caption=Kandlikar and Grande’s definition of channel scale[40], figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
通道尺度类型水力直径/μm
过渡尺度通道0.1~10
微尺度通道10~200
微小尺度通道200~3000
常规尺度通道>3000
), ArticleFig(id=1322941343256944996, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941317252259982, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

Kandlikar和Grande对通道尺度的定义[40]

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
通道尺度类型水力直径/μm
过渡尺度通道0.1~10
微尺度通道10~200
微小尺度通道200~3000
常规尺度通道>3000
), ArticleFig(id=1322941343315665253, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941317252259982, language=EN, label=Table 2, caption=Relationship between different forces and scales, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
作用力尺度作用力尺度
电磁力~L4惯性力~L2
离心力~L4黏性力~L1
重力~L3表面张力~L1
浮升力~L3静电力~L−2
), ArticleFig(id=1322941343399551334, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941317252259982, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

不同作用力与尺度关系

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
作用力尺度作用力尺度
电磁力~L4惯性力~L2
离心力~L4黏性力~L1
重力~L3表面张力~L1
浮升力~L3静电力~L−2
), ArticleFig(id=1322941343475048807, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941317252259982, language=EN, label=Table 3, caption=Summary of simplified heat transfer simulation methods for heat exchanger, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
计算方法示意图源项特点
多孔介质模型通过对流换热系数计算,且流
体和固体物性通过孔隙率加权
双单元换热模型通过换热速率或NTU计算
分布式体积热源法通过非均匀体积热源计算
均匀体积热源法通过均匀整体体积热源计算
), ArticleFig(id=1322941343537963368, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941317252259982, language=CN, label=表3, caption=

换热器简化换热模拟方法总结

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
计算方法示意图源项特点
多孔介质模型通过对流换热系数计算,且流
体和固体物性通过孔隙率加权
双单元换热模型通过换热速率或NTU计算
分布式体积热源法通过非均匀体积热源计算
均匀体积热源法通过均匀整体体积热源计算
), ArticleFig(id=1322941343617655145, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941317252259982, language=EN, label=Table 4, caption=Basic principles and characteristics of non-contact measurement methods, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
测量手段被测换热管或微通道测量结果基本原理与特点
液晶示温[81]①液晶分子排列对温度敏感,反射特定波长的光,通过颜色变化指示温度,可测量表面温度;
②空间分辨率高;
③测温范围有限
红外测温[239]①基于热辐射原理,通过检测物体发出的红外辐射能量来测量温度;
②测量响应快;
③无法测量内部温度,易受环境干扰
激光诱导荧光[241]①激光激发被测分子/原子的电子跃迁,通过所产生的荧光强度/波长获取温度;
②空间分辨率高;
③对被测样品及环境要求较高
粒子图像测速[243]①捕捉含有示踪粒子的流体图像并计算粒子位移,进而获得流速;
②可实现全场瞬态测量;
③示踪粒子可能干扰流动
激光干涉测温[245]①利用激光的相干性,将参考光与测量光叠加形成干涉条纹;
②可实现纳米级精度;
③对环境振动敏感
), ArticleFig(id=1322941343705735530, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941317252259982, language=CN, label=表4, caption=

非接触式测量手段基本原理与特点

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
测量手段被测换热管或微通道测量结果基本原理与特点
液晶示温[81]①液晶分子排列对温度敏感,反射特定波长的光,通过颜色变化指示温度,可测量表面温度;
②空间分辨率高;
③测温范围有限
红外测温[239]①基于热辐射原理,通过检测物体发出的红外辐射能量来测量温度;
②测量响应快;
③无法测量内部温度,易受环境干扰
激光诱导荧光[241]①激光激发被测分子/原子的电子跃迁,通过所产生的荧光强度/波长获取温度;
②空间分辨率高;
③对被测样品及环境要求较高
粒子图像测速[243]①捕捉含有示踪粒子的流体图像并计算粒子位移,进而获得流速;
②可实现全场瞬态测量;
③示踪粒子可能干扰流动
激光干涉测温[245]①利用激光的相干性,将参考光与测量光叠加形成干涉条纹;
②可实现纳米级精度;
③对环境振动敏感
), ArticleFig(id=1322941343798010219, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941317252259982, language=EN, label=Table A1, caption=Empirical correlations for fluid heat transfer in circular tubes (including mini- and mirco-tubes and conventional-scale tubes) or micro-channels, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
作者方法换热经验关联式结构类型及尺寸流体类型适用范围
 注:各关联式中,下角标b指代流体体平均参数,微通道问题中雷诺数 特征长度为水力直径。
Dittus-Boelter[138-139]实验 $ \begin{aligned}{{Nu}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=0.023{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.8}{Pr} _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{n}\\n=\begin{cases} 0.3\quad \text{冷却}\\0.4\quad \text{加热}\end{cases}\end{aligned} $圆管水 $ \begin{aligned}& L/{d}_{i}\geqslant 10\\& {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}\geqslant 10\;000\\& 0.7\leqslant {{Pr} }_{{\mathrm{b}}}\leqslant 160\end{aligned} $
Taylor[140]实验 $ \begin{aligned}& {{Nu}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=\begin{cases}0.023{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.8}{Pr} _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.4}\qquad\qquad\;\;\; \text{冷却}\\0.023{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.8}{Pr} _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.4}{\left(\dfrac{{T}_{w}}{{T}_{{\mathrm{b}}}}\right)}^{-C}\quad \text{加热}\end{cases}\\& C=0.57-\dfrac{1.59{d}_{i}}{L}\end{aligned} $圆管冷却:空气、
二氧化碳;
加热:氢气、
氦气、氮气、
空气、
二氧化碳
冷却:
$ \begin{aligned}& 0.25 \lt {T}_{\mathrm{w}}/{T}_{{\mathrm{b}}} \lt 1\\& 4 \lt L/{d}_{i} \lt 52\end{aligned} $
加热:
$ \begin{aligned}& 1 \lt {T}_{{\mathrm{w}}}/{T}_{{\mathrm{b}}} \lt 23\\& 2 \lt L/{d}_{i} \lt 52\end{aligned} $
Gnielinski[141]理论
推导
$ \begin{aligned}& {{Nu}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=\dfrac{\left(f/8\right)\left({{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}-1\;000\right){{Pr} }_{{\mathrm{b}}}}{1+12.7\sqrt{f/8}\left({{Pr} }_{{\mathrm{b}}}{}^{2/3}-1\right)}\left[1+{\left({d}_{i}/l\right)}^{2/3}\right]{c}_{t}\\& f={\left(1.82\mathrm{\lg }\;{{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}-1.64\right)}^{-2},{c}_{t}={\left({T}_{{\mathrm{b}}}/{T}_{\text{w}}\right)}^{0.45}\end{aligned} $圆管 $ \begin{aligned}& 2\;300 \lt {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}} \lt {10}^{6}\\& 0.7 \lt {{Pr} }_{{\mathrm{b}}} \lt {10}^{5}\end{aligned} $
Nikitin等[142]实验 ${h}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=\begin{cases}2.52{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.681}\quad \text{加热}\\5.49{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.625}\quad \text{冷却}\end{cases}$半圆形截面、
“Z”字形微通道
$ \begin{aligned}{d}_{{\mathrm{hot}}}&=1.9\;\text{mm}\\{\alpha }_{{\mathrm{Z}},}{}_{{\mathrm{hot}}}&=115{^{\circ}}\\{d}_{{\mathrm{cold}}}&=1.8\;\text{mm}\\{\alpha }_{{\mathrm{Z,cold}}}&=110{^{\circ}}\end{aligned} $
二氧化碳 $ \begin{aligned}& 2\;800 \lt {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}} \lt 5\;800\\& \text{加热}\\& 6\;200 \lt {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}} \lt 12\;100\\& \text{冷却}\end{aligned} $
Kim等[143]实验和仿真 $ N{u}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=4.065+0.003\;05{{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}} $半圆形截面、
“Z”字形微通道
$ \begin{aligned}& d=1.51\;\text{mm}\\& {\alpha }_{Z}=150{^{\circ}}\end{aligned} $
氦 $ \begin{aligned}& 350 \lt {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}} \lt 800\\& {{Pr} }_{{\mathrm{b}}}=0.66\\& 1.5\;\text{MPa} \lt P \lt 1.9\;\text{MPa}\end{aligned} $
Jackson[136]实验 ${{Nu}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=0.018\;3{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.82}{Pr}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.5}{\left(\dfrac{{\rho }_{{\mathrm{w}}}}{{\rho }_{{\mathrm{b}}}}\right)}^{0.3}{\left(\dfrac{{\overline{c}}_{p}}{{c}_{p,{\mathrm{b}}}}\right)}^{n} $水平圆管
$ {d}_{i}=19\;\text{mm} $
水、二氧化碳 $ {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}\geqslant 8\;000 $
Seo等[145]实验 $ \begin{aligned}& N{u}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=0.720\;3{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.177\;5}{{Pr} }^{1/3}{\left({\mu }_{{\mathrm{b}}}/{\mu }_{{\mathrm{w}}}\right)}^{0.14}\\& \text{加热}\end{aligned} $半月形截面、直微
通道宽0.8 mm,高
0.6 mm
水 $ 100\leqslant {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}\leqslant 850 $
Liu等[148]实验 $ N{u}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=0.122\;9{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.602\;1}{Pr} _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.3}{\left(\dfrac{{c}_{p,{\mathrm{w}}}}{{c}_{p,{\mathrm{b}}}}\right)}^{0.131} $圆形截面、
水平直微通道
$ d=1.87\;\text{mm} $
二氧化碳3 600 < Reb < 36 500
0.9 < Prb < 10.6
7.53 MPa < P < 11.97 MPa
299.55 K < Tb < 394.42 K
50.03 kg/(m2s) < G < 780.11 kg/(m2s)
Katz等[149]实验和仿真 $ N{u}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=\begin{cases}0.026\;09{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.876\;5}\overline{{Pr} }_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{1/3}\quad {\text{CO}}_{2}\\0.080\;72{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.435\;9}\overline{{Pr} }_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{1/3}\quad \text{He}\end{cases} $近似半圆形截面、
“Z”字形微通道
$ \begin{aligned}{d}_{h}&=1\;\text{mm}\\{\alpha }_{Z}&=106{^{\circ}}\end{aligned} $
二氧化碳、氦 $ \begin{aligned}& 500\leqslant {{Re}}_{\mathrm{b},{{\mathrm{CO}}_{2}}}\leqslant 16\;000\\& {P}_{{{\mathrm{CO}}_{2}}}=20\;\text{MPa}\\& 293\;\text{K} \lt {T}_{{{\mathrm{CO}}_{2}}} \lt 473\;\text{K}\\& 300\leqslant {{Re}}_{\mathrm{b},\mathrm{He}}\leqslant 3\;000\\& {P}_{\mathrm{He}}=4\;\text{MPa}\\& 293\;\text{K} \lt {T}_{\mathrm{He}} \lt 823\;\text{K}\end{aligned} $
北航团队[38,132]实验 $ N{u}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=0.008\;9{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.83}{Pr} _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.021}{\left(\dfrac{{\rho }_{{\mathrm{b}}}}{{\rho }_{{\mathrm{w}}}}\right)}^{0.105}{\left(\dfrac{{c}_{p,{\mathrm{b}}}}{{c}_{p,{\mathrm{w}}}}\right)}^{0.003} $水平圆管
$ {d}_{i}=0.8\;\text{mm} $
甲烷 $ \begin{aligned}& 5\;000\leqslant {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}\leqslant 30\;000\\& 4.8\;\text{MPa} \lt P \lt 7.5\;\text{MPa}\end{aligned} $
北航团队[150]实验 $ N{u}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=0.010\;3{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.902\;2}{Pr} _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{1/3} $半椭圆形截面、
“Z”字形微通道
$ \begin{aligned}{d}_{h}&=291.6\;\text{μm}\\{\alpha }_{Z}&=160{^{\circ}}\end{aligned} $
氦 $ \begin{aligned}& 1\;350\leqslant {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}\leqslant 8\;200\\& P \lt 10\;\text{MPa}\end{aligned} $
Yu等[134]实验 $ {{Nu}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=0.023{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.8}{Pr} _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.4}\text{exp[0.3(1-}\overline{{c}_{p,\mathrm{b}}}/\overline{{c}_{p,\mathrm{b},\mathrm{che}}})] $水平圆管
$ {d}_{i}=2\;\text{mm} $
正癸烷,
甲基环己烷,
乙苯
$ \begin{aligned}& 24\;000\leqslant {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}\leqslant 35\;000\\& 50\;{\text{kW/m}}^{2} \lt q \lt 320\;{\text{kW/m}}^{2}\end{aligned} $
), ArticleFig(id=1322941343890284908, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941317252259982, language=CN, label=表A1, caption=

圆管(含微细管和常规尺度)或微通道内流体换热经验关联式

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
作者方法换热经验关联式结构类型及尺寸流体类型适用范围
 注:各关联式中,下角标b指代流体体平均参数,微通道问题中雷诺数 特征长度为水力直径。
Dittus-Boelter[138-139]实验 $ \begin{aligned}{{Nu}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=0.023{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.8}{Pr} _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{n}\\n=\begin{cases} 0.3\quad \text{冷却}\\0.4\quad \text{加热}\end{cases}\end{aligned} $圆管水 $ \begin{aligned}& L/{d}_{i}\geqslant 10\\& {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}\geqslant 10\;000\\& 0.7\leqslant {{Pr} }_{{\mathrm{b}}}\leqslant 160\end{aligned} $
Taylor[140]实验 $ \begin{aligned}& {{Nu}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=\begin{cases}0.023{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.8}{Pr} _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.4}\qquad\qquad\;\;\; \text{冷却}\\0.023{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.8}{Pr} _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.4}{\left(\dfrac{{T}_{w}}{{T}_{{\mathrm{b}}}}\right)}^{-C}\quad \text{加热}\end{cases}\\& C=0.57-\dfrac{1.59{d}_{i}}{L}\end{aligned} $圆管冷却:空气、
二氧化碳;
加热:氢气、
氦气、氮气、
空气、
二氧化碳
冷却:
$ \begin{aligned}& 0.25 \lt {T}_{\mathrm{w}}/{T}_{{\mathrm{b}}} \lt 1\\& 4 \lt L/{d}_{i} \lt 52\end{aligned} $
加热:
$ \begin{aligned}& 1 \lt {T}_{{\mathrm{w}}}/{T}_{{\mathrm{b}}} \lt 23\\& 2 \lt L/{d}_{i} \lt 52\end{aligned} $
Gnielinski[141]理论
推导
$ \begin{aligned}& {{Nu}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=\dfrac{\left(f/8\right)\left({{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}-1\;000\right){{Pr} }_{{\mathrm{b}}}}{1+12.7\sqrt{f/8}\left({{Pr} }_{{\mathrm{b}}}{}^{2/3}-1\right)}\left[1+{\left({d}_{i}/l\right)}^{2/3}\right]{c}_{t}\\& f={\left(1.82\mathrm{\lg }\;{{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}-1.64\right)}^{-2},{c}_{t}={\left({T}_{{\mathrm{b}}}/{T}_{\text{w}}\right)}^{0.45}\end{aligned} $圆管 $ \begin{aligned}& 2\;300 \lt {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}} \lt {10}^{6}\\& 0.7 \lt {{Pr} }_{{\mathrm{b}}} \lt {10}^{5}\end{aligned} $
Nikitin等[142]实验 ${h}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=\begin{cases}2.52{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.681}\quad \text{加热}\\5.49{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.625}\quad \text{冷却}\end{cases}$半圆形截面、
“Z”字形微通道
$ \begin{aligned}{d}_{{\mathrm{hot}}}&=1.9\;\text{mm}\\{\alpha }_{{\mathrm{Z}},}{}_{{\mathrm{hot}}}&=115{^{\circ}}\\{d}_{{\mathrm{cold}}}&=1.8\;\text{mm}\\{\alpha }_{{\mathrm{Z,cold}}}&=110{^{\circ}}\end{aligned} $
二氧化碳 $ \begin{aligned}& 2\;800 \lt {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}} \lt 5\;800\\& \text{加热}\\& 6\;200 \lt {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}} \lt 12\;100\\& \text{冷却}\end{aligned} $
Kim等[143]实验和仿真 $ N{u}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=4.065+0.003\;05{{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}} $半圆形截面、
“Z”字形微通道
$ \begin{aligned}& d=1.51\;\text{mm}\\& {\alpha }_{Z}=150{^{\circ}}\end{aligned} $
氦 $ \begin{aligned}& 350 \lt {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}} \lt 800\\& {{Pr} }_{{\mathrm{b}}}=0.66\\& 1.5\;\text{MPa} \lt P \lt 1.9\;\text{MPa}\end{aligned} $
Jackson[136]实验 ${{Nu}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=0.018\;3{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.82}{Pr}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.5}{\left(\dfrac{{\rho }_{{\mathrm{w}}}}{{\rho }_{{\mathrm{b}}}}\right)}^{0.3}{\left(\dfrac{{\overline{c}}_{p}}{{c}_{p,{\mathrm{b}}}}\right)}^{n} $水平圆管
$ {d}_{i}=19\;\text{mm} $
水、二氧化碳 $ {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}\geqslant 8\;000 $
Seo等[145]实验 $ \begin{aligned}& N{u}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=0.720\;3{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.177\;5}{{Pr} }^{1/3}{\left({\mu }_{{\mathrm{b}}}/{\mu }_{{\mathrm{w}}}\right)}^{0.14}\\& \text{加热}\end{aligned} $半月形截面、直微
通道宽0.8 mm,高
0.6 mm
水 $ 100\leqslant {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}\leqslant 850 $
Liu等[148]实验 $ N{u}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=0.122\;9{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.602\;1}{Pr} _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.3}{\left(\dfrac{{c}_{p,{\mathrm{w}}}}{{c}_{p,{\mathrm{b}}}}\right)}^{0.131} $圆形截面、
水平直微通道
$ d=1.87\;\text{mm} $
二氧化碳3 600 < Reb < 36 500
0.9 < Prb < 10.6
7.53 MPa < P < 11.97 MPa
299.55 K < Tb < 394.42 K
50.03 kg/(m2s) < G < 780.11 kg/(m2s)
Katz等[149]实验和仿真 $ N{u}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=\begin{cases}0.026\;09{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.876\;5}\overline{{Pr} }_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{1/3}\quad {\text{CO}}_{2}\\0.080\;72{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.435\;9}\overline{{Pr} }_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{1/3}\quad \text{He}\end{cases} $近似半圆形截面、
“Z”字形微通道
$ \begin{aligned}{d}_{h}&=1\;\text{mm}\\{\alpha }_{Z}&=106{^{\circ}}\end{aligned} $
二氧化碳、氦 $ \begin{aligned}& 500\leqslant {{Re}}_{\mathrm{b},{{\mathrm{CO}}_{2}}}\leqslant 16\;000\\& {P}_{{{\mathrm{CO}}_{2}}}=20\;\text{MPa}\\& 293\;\text{K} \lt {T}_{{{\mathrm{CO}}_{2}}} \lt 473\;\text{K}\\& 300\leqslant {{Re}}_{\mathrm{b},\mathrm{He}}\leqslant 3\;000\\& {P}_{\mathrm{He}}=4\;\text{MPa}\\& 293\;\text{K} \lt {T}_{\mathrm{He}} \lt 823\;\text{K}\end{aligned} $
北航团队[38,132]实验 $ N{u}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=0.008\;9{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.83}{Pr} _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.021}{\left(\dfrac{{\rho }_{{\mathrm{b}}}}{{\rho }_{{\mathrm{w}}}}\right)}^{0.105}{\left(\dfrac{{c}_{p,{\mathrm{b}}}}{{c}_{p,{\mathrm{w}}}}\right)}^{0.003} $水平圆管
$ {d}_{i}=0.8\;\text{mm} $
甲烷 $ \begin{aligned}& 5\;000\leqslant {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}\leqslant 30\;000\\& 4.8\;\text{MPa} \lt P \lt 7.5\;\text{MPa}\end{aligned} $
北航团队[150]实验 $ N{u}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=0.010\;3{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.902\;2}{Pr} _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{1/3} $半椭圆形截面、
“Z”字形微通道
$ \begin{aligned}{d}_{h}&=291.6\;\text{μm}\\{\alpha }_{Z}&=160{^{\circ}}\end{aligned} $
氦 $ \begin{aligned}& 1\;350\leqslant {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}\leqslant 8\;200\\& P \lt 10\;\text{MPa}\end{aligned} $
Yu等[134]实验 $ {{Nu}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=0.023{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.8}{Pr} _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.4}\text{exp[0.3(1-}\overline{{c}_{p,\mathrm{b}}}/\overline{{c}_{p,\mathrm{b},\mathrm{che}}})] $水平圆管
$ {d}_{i}=2\;\text{mm} $
正癸烷,
甲基环己烷,
乙苯
$ \begin{aligned}& 24\;000\leqslant {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}\leqslant 35\;000\\& 50\;{\text{kW/m}}^{2} \lt q \lt 320\;{\text{kW/m}}^{2}\end{aligned} $
), ArticleFig(id=1322941343969976685, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941317252259982, language=EN, label=Table A2, caption=Empirical correlations for convective heat transfer of fluid cross flow over staggered circular tubes, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
文献方法经验关联式结构类型及尺寸流体类型工况范围
Colburn[152]实验 $ {{Nu}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=0.33{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.6}Pr _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{1/3} $叉排圆管空气 $ \begin{aligned}& 10\leqslant {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}\leqslant 40\;000\\& {N}_{\mathrm{row}}\geqslant 10\end{aligned} $
Žukauskas[153]实验 $ {{Nu}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}={\varepsilon }_{n}c{\left(\dfrac{{s}_{T}}{{s}_{L}}\right)}^{{{k}_{1}}}{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{{k}_{2}}Pr _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.36}{\left({Pr }_{{\mathrm{b}}}/{Pr }_{{\mathrm{w}}}\right)}^{0.25} $叉排圆管
$ {d}_{o}=30\;\text{mm} $
空气 $ \begin{aligned}& 1\leqslant {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}\leqslant 2\times {10}^{6}\\& 0.7\leqslant {Pr }_{{\mathrm{b}}}\leqslant 500\end{aligned} $
Kays和London[154]实验 $ {{Nu}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}={C}_{h}{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.6}{Pr}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{1/3} $叉排圆管空气 $ \begin{aligned}& 1.25 \lt {s}_{T} \lt 2.5\\& 0.75 \lt {s}_{L} \lt 1.5\\& 300 \lt {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}} \lt 15\;000\end{aligned} $
Chen和Wung[155]仿真 $ {{Nu}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=0.78{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.45}Pr _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.38} $叉排圆管空气 $ \begin{aligned}& {s}_{T}={s}_{L}=2{d}_{o}\\& 40 \lt {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}} \lt 800\\& 0.1 \lt {{Pr}}_{{\mathrm{b}}} \lt 10\end{aligned} $
Khan[156]仿真及
数值分析
$ {{Nu}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=\dfrac{0.61{s}_{T}{}^{0.091}{s}_{L}{}^{0.053}}{1-2\exp \left(-1.09{s}_{L}\right)}{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{1/2}Pr _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{1/3} $叉排圆管
$ 1\;\text{mm}\leqslant {d}_{o}\leqslant 3\;\text{mm} $
空气 $ \begin{aligned}& 1.05{d}_{o}\leqslant {s}_{T}\leqslant 3{d}_{o}\\& 1.05{d}_{o}\leqslant {s}_{L}\leqslant 3{d}_{o}\\& {10}^{3}\leqslant {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}\leqslant {10}^{5}\end{aligned} $
Li等[158]仿真 $ {{Nu}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=0.126{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.786}Pr _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.36}{\left({Pr }_{{\mathrm{b}}}/{Pr }_{{\mathrm{w}}}\right)}^{0.25} $叉排圆管
$ {d}_{o}=1\;\text{mm} $
空气 $ \begin{aligned}& {s}_{T}=2{d}_{o},{s}_{L}=2.5{d}_{o}\\& 500\leqslant {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}\leqslant 1\;500\end{aligned} $
), ArticleFig(id=1322941344053862766, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1322258626896822465, articleId=1322941317252259982, language=CN, label=表A2, caption=

管外流体绕流叉排圆管对流换热经验关联式

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
文献方法经验关联式结构类型及尺寸流体类型工况范围
Colburn[152]实验 $ {{Nu}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=0.33{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.6}Pr _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{1/3} $叉排圆管空气 $ \begin{aligned}& 10\leqslant {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}\leqslant 40\;000\\& {N}_{\mathrm{row}}\geqslant 10\end{aligned} $
Žukauskas[153]实验 $ {{Nu}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}={\varepsilon }_{n}c{\left(\dfrac{{s}_{T}}{{s}_{L}}\right)}^{{{k}_{1}}}{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{{k}_{2}}Pr _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.36}{\left({Pr }_{{\mathrm{b}}}/{Pr }_{{\mathrm{w}}}\right)}^{0.25} $叉排圆管
$ {d}_{o}=30\;\text{mm} $
空气 $ \begin{aligned}& 1\leqslant {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}\leqslant 2\times {10}^{6}\\& 0.7\leqslant {Pr }_{{\mathrm{b}}}\leqslant 500\end{aligned} $
Kays和London[154]实验 $ {{Nu}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}={C}_{h}{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.6}{Pr}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{1/3} $叉排圆管空气 $ \begin{aligned}& 1.25 \lt {s}_{T} \lt 2.5\\& 0.75 \lt {s}_{L} \lt 1.5\\& 300 \lt {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}} \lt 15\;000\end{aligned} $
Chen和Wung[155]仿真 $ {{Nu}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=0.78{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.45}Pr _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.38} $叉排圆管空气 $ \begin{aligned}& {s}_{T}={s}_{L}=2{d}_{o}\\& 40 \lt {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}} \lt 800\\& 0.1 \lt {{Pr}}_{{\mathrm{b}}} \lt 10\end{aligned} $
Khan[156]仿真及
数值分析
$ {{Nu}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=\dfrac{0.61{s}_{T}{}^{0.091}{s}_{L}{}^{0.053}}{1-2\exp \left(-1.09{s}_{L}\right)}{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{1/2}Pr _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{1/3} $叉排圆管
$ 1\;\text{mm}\leqslant {d}_{o}\leqslant 3\;\text{mm} $
空气 $ \begin{aligned}& 1.05{d}_{o}\leqslant {s}_{T}\leqslant 3{d}_{o}\\& 1.05{d}_{o}\leqslant {s}_{L}\leqslant 3{d}_{o}\\& {10}^{3}\leqslant {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}\leqslant {10}^{5}\end{aligned} $
Li等[158]仿真 $ {{Nu}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}=0.126{Re}_{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.786}Pr _{{\mathrm{b}}}^{0.36}{\left({Pr }_{{\mathrm{b}}}/{Pr }_{{\mathrm{w}}}\right)}^{0.25} $叉排圆管
$ {d}_{o}=1\;\text{mm} $
空气 $ \begin{aligned}& {s}_{T}=2{d}_{o},{s}_{L}=2.5{d}_{o}\\& 500\leqslant {{Re}}_{{\mathrm{b}}}\leqslant 1\;500\end{aligned} $
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强预冷发动机用紧凑快速强换热技术进展
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王一帆 1 , 李辉 2 , 陈一鸣 1, 3 , 付超 1, 3 , 邹正平 1, 3, *
北京航空航天大学学报 | 2026,52(10): 3237-3275
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北京航空航天大学学报 | 2026 , 52 (10) : 3237 -3275
强预冷发动机用紧凑快速强换热技术进展
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王一帆1, 李辉2, 陈一鸣1, 3, 付超1, 3, 邹正平1, 3, *
作者信息
  • 1北京航空航天大学 航空发动机研究院,北京 102206
  • 2中国运载火箭技术研究院 临近空间物理重点实验室,100076
  • 3北京航空航天大学 航空发动机气动热力国防科技重点实验室,北京 100191
通讯作者:
Progress in compact and rapid heat transfer technology for precooled engines
Yifan WANG1, Hui LI2, Yiming CHEN1, 3, Chao FU1, 3, Zhengping ZOU1, 3, *
Affiliations
  • 1Research Institute of Aero-Engine,Beihang University,Beijing 102206,China
  • 2National Key Laboratory of Nearspace Physics,China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology,Beijing 100076,China
  • 3National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Aero-Engine and Aero-Thermodynamics,Beihang University,Beijing 100191,China
  • Corresponding Author:
出版时间: 2026-10-31 doi: 10.13700/j.bh.1001-5965.2025.0518
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紧凑快速强换热技术可在超紧凑空间、毫秒级极短时间内高效收集-转移发动机进气或内部大量热量,是决定强预冷发动机性能优劣与技术成败的核心关键,其内部极端工作环境及苛刻性能需求导致传统民用换热器的分析与设计方法难以适用、实验测试手段也难以满足其验证需求。因此,围绕强预冷发动机应用开展适用性强、针对性高的紧凑快速强换热技术研究,具有重要的学术价值与工程意义。基于此,从机理、技术与实验等多个维度,系统综述了紧凑快速强换热技术的研究进展,并分析了该技术在强预冷发动机应用中面临的主要挑战。现有研究已取得了广泛而深入的成果,包括超临界工质在微尺度通道与横掠管束中的快速强换热机理、快速仿真与强变物性工质相似性分析方法、不确定性与精细化设计方法及面向紧凑空间极端热环境的实验测试手段等。总体来看,在基础研究方面,亟须深入理解微小尺度复杂热环境下流动换热耦合机理,进一步完善紧凑快速强换热的高精度经验关联数据库;在分析与设计方面,应关注融合新兴手段的紧凑快速强换热分析及设计方法,以提升紧凑快速强换热在宽工作范围内的整体性能;在实验验证方面,有必要进一步发展适用于狭小空间复杂结构的精细化流场测试方法,并在真实装机匹配条件下开展全温全压实验验证。上述研究将为提升紧凑快速强换热技术成熟度、推动强预冷发动机技术发展与验证提供坚实支撑。

强预冷发动机  /  紧凑快速强换热  /  紧凑式换热器  /  预冷器  /  微小尺度  /  流动换热

Compact and rapid heat transfer technology can, within ultra-confined spaces and on the order of milliseconds, efficiently capture and transport large amounts of heat from the intake or internal components. It is the core determinant of both performance and technical success for a precooled engine. Conventional civil use heat exchanger analysis, design procedures, and experimental testing approaches are insufficient for validation due to the harsh operating environment and demanding performance requirements inside such systems. Therefore, conducting highly targeted, application oriented research on compact and rapid heat transfer technology specifically for precooled engines carries significant academic and engineering value. In this paper, the research progress of compact and rapid heat transfer technology from multiple dimensions, including underlying mechanisms, technical approaches, and experimental methods, is systematically reviewed, and the principal challenges it faces when applied to precooled engines are analyzed. Existing studies have yielded extensive and in-depth results in several areas: the mechanisms of rapid and intensive heat transfer of supercritical working fluids in microscale channels and cross-flow tube bundles; rapid simulation and similarity analysis methods for fluids with sharply varying properties; refined and uncertainty quantification based design methodologies; and experimental testing techniques tailored for extreme thermal environments in confined spaces, etc. Overall, in terms of fundamental research, it is urgent to deepen our understanding of the coupled flow heat transfer mechanisms under complex thermal conditions at micro scales and to further enrich high accuracy empirical correlation databases for compact and rapid heat transfer. From an analysis and design perspective, attention should be paid to integrating emerging techniques into analysis and design methods to enhance overall performance across broad operating ranges. In terms of experimental validation, more sophisticated flow-field measurement techniques appropriate for intricate structures in confined spaces must be developed, and complete temperature and full pressure testing must be conducted under actual engine installation circumstances. These research efforts will provide a solid foundation for improving the maturity of compact and rapid heat transfer technology and for advancing and validating precooled engine technology.

precooled engine  /  compact and rapid heat transfer  /  compact heat exchanger  /  precooler  /  microscopic scale  /  flow and heat transfer
王一帆, 李辉, 陈一鸣, 付超, 邹正平. 强预冷发动机用紧凑快速强换热技术进展. 北京航空航天大学学报, 2026 , 52 (10) : 3237 -3275 . DOI: 10.13700/j.bh.1001-5965.2025.0518
Yifan WANG, Hui LI, Yiming CHEN, Chao FU, Zhengping ZOU. Progress in compact and rapid heat transfer technology for precooled engines[J]. Journal of Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2026 , 52 (10) : 3237 -3275 . DOI: 10.13700/j.bh.1001-5965.2025.0518
水平起降、可重复使用空天飞行器具备5倍声速以上工作速度、常规跑道起降等技术优势,将建立全新的低成本、快速响应全球航空新范式,已成为当前航空航天领域研究热点之一[1-4]。
动力系统是实现水平起飞至高马赫数工作的决定性因素,而现有空天动力方案受限于各自工作原理及适用范围,均难以完全满足全域高性能的动力需求。面对此类动力系统难题,协同融合的组合动力方案是一个重要发展路线,其中,拓展涡轮发动机工作速域是关键突破方向之一[5-6]。在低马赫数(0~3)飞行时,涡轮发动机是技术成熟、可靠性高、比冲高的理想动力形式;而在高马赫数(>3)时,涡轮发动机性能将急剧恶化且可靠性降低。当前,融合冲压发动机在高马赫数下性能优势的涡轮基组合循环发动机(turbine-based combined cycle, TBCC)是重要突破方向之一,但受限于模态转换、飞发一体化等关键技术瓶颈,尚未实现成熟的工程应用。此外,现有涡轮发动机在更高马赫数下高效可靠工作的另一核心难点是如何实现对进气来流高温中蕴含的热量进行高效可靠调控,以解决热力循环效率急剧降低、部件难以冷却等性能及结构方面的问题[7-8]。紧凑快速强换热技术从空天动力面临的极端热问题出发,多采用具有极高的表面积与体积比的微小尺度通道换热器[9-10],利用中间换热介质或燃料在有限空间、毫秒级极短时间内高效收集-转移发动机进气或内部大量热量。采用该技术一方面可解决高温进气来流高滞止温度对发动机产生的不利影响,另一方面可实现发动机内部热源-热沉间热能的高效转移转化,以提升发动机整体工作性能[11]。
由于紧凑快速强换热技术突出的技术潜力和广泛的应用前景,国内外自20世纪60年代开始提出了诸多强预冷发动机方案。国外代表方案包括俄罗斯深冷空气涡轮火箭发动机(deeply cooled air turborocket, ATRDC)[12]、日本膨胀循环空气涡轮火箭发动机(air-turboramjet with expander cycle, ATREX)[13]及预冷涡喷发动机(pre-cooled turbojet, PCTJ)[14]、英国反应发动机公司(Reaction Engines Limited,REL)协同式吸气火箭循环发动机“佩刀”SABRE[15-16]及Scimitar“弯刀”发动机[17]。国内代表方案包括北京航空航天大学吸气式强预冷发动机(hypersonic airbreathing pre-cooled engine, HAPE)[18]及预冷涡轮冲压组合发动机(precooled turbine-based combined cycle,PCTBCC)[5]、北京动力机械研究所多循环深度耦合预冷发动机(incorporated multi-cycle cooling engine, ICE)[19]及西安航天动力研究所预冷空气涡轮火箭发动机(precooling air turbo rocket engine, PATR)[20]等。考虑到上述方案展现出的巨大发展潜力,近年来各国开展了大量理论及实验研究工作,并在宽域高效总体[21-22]、高效换热[23]、宽域进排气[24-25]、高效燃烧[26]、叶轮机[27-28]等方面取得了多项关键技术突破。2025年7月,英国Frazer-Nash公司进一步公布了一项名为INVICTUS的空天飞行器研究计划[29]。该计划受到欧洲航天局高度重视及大力资助,吸纳了REL公司核心技术团队及其积累的大量强预冷技术研发成果,拟于2031年初以氢燃料吸气式强预冷发动机为动力完成飞行器研制及试飞,凸显了强预冷发动机方案在高超声速领域的重要应用价值。
纵观上述强预冷发动机方案发展历程及技术特点,结合已开展的大量关键技术研究及核心部件样机研制过程,不难看出,实现有限空间、有限质量约束下的快速强换热是决定强预冷发动机性能乃至成败的核心。例如,ATRDC发动机研制终止的关键原因之一是换热收益与质量代价无法平衡,其强预冷器质量超过整机40%以上且难以满足深冷的换热需求,致使预冷收益远低于代偿损失[30];此外,研究指出强预冷器性能是决定强预冷发动机高马赫数性能的关键,强预冷器效能每提升1%,压气机压比将提升2%以上,而强预冷器质量每增加1%,将使整机推重比降低约0.4%(以SABRE4热力循环为例)[31]。
从发动机总体性能和强换热需求角度出发分析,强预冷发动机紧凑快速强换热技术与传统民用换热器在技术特征上的区别主要表现在以下方面:①瞬时大温降需求(10 ms级将约1250 K降至约300~500 K传统航发工作温度)[32-33];②低流动阻力需求(总压损失增加1%,则推力损失约1.1%以上)[31];③高效-轻质-紧凑兼顾需求(目前地面换热设备单位质量较低,以典型管壳式换热器为例,其单位质量换热功率一般不超过10 kW/kg,紧凑度一般不超过300 m2/m3,而紧凑式换热器单位质量换热功率一般不超过20 kW/kg,但适用于强预冷发动机的强预冷器性能指标需达到不小于100 kW/kg及1000 m2/m3)[34]。更进一步,强预冷器在发动机内部面临更为复杂严苛的工作环境,包括:极端的温度和压力条件(面向Ma=5工况的强预冷器高温侧温度约1250 K,采用超临界氦作为中间换热介质工作压力约20 MPa)[35];超强温度梯度(换热器内外侧存在数百K、进出口存在数百至1000 K以上温差)[33,36];工作环境受限且耦合复杂(与进气道、压气机等上下游部组件及整机结构布局匹配)[37];换热介质热物理性质影响显著(跨临界点过程存在换热恶化或强化)[38]等。
复杂严峻的工作环境及苛刻的性能需求使得传统民用换热器技术难以适配强预冷发动机紧凑快速强换热器需要,传统换热器分析及设计方法、实验测试方法等方面无法直接应用,而已有实验结果难以有效指导分析及设计技术发展。为此,作为决定强预冷发动机能否实现的核心,有必要从机理-技术-实验多维度开展适用于强预冷发动机紧凑快速强换热技术的流动换热理论及实验工作。考虑到目前尚无文献针对该问题最新进展进行全面梳理,本文以适用于强预冷发动机应用需求的紧凑快速强换热技术为对象,从内部流动换热机理、分析及设计技术、实验测试技术及验证(见图1)多维度详细介绍了国内外及北京航空航天大学强预冷空天动力研究团队(以下简称“北航团队”)研究进展,总结当前不足并讨论了紧凑快速强换热技术的挑战与发展趋势,以期为空天动力相关技术发展提供重要思路。
适用于强预冷发动机的紧凑快速强换热技术主要涉及2类换热器:针对进气预冷的微细管阵列结构强预冷器和针对发动机内部能量传递的印刷电路板结构强换热器(printed circuit heat exchanger, PCHE),主要形式及特征如图2所示。内部基本单元工作状态可归结为微小尺度流动换热这一物理过程。具体到强预冷发动机,除利用微小尺度通道以提升有限空间内换热能力,还涉及采用超临界流体作为换热工质以利用其高密度、高换热系数及低黏度等特性实现低阻强换热[39]。因此,根据紧凑快速强换热器主要形式,其机理主要涉及超临界工质微小尺度通道及空气横掠管束流动换热领域,本节将分类综述其研究进展。
根据Kandlikar和Grande[40]对通道尺度定义的准则(见表1),强预冷发动机内微小尺度通道(微细管约0.8~1.0 mm,蚀刻通道约50~200 μm)主要集中于微小及微通道研究范畴。微小尺度通道带来的尺度效应是常规尺度经典流动和换热规律在微小尺度流动换热分析中出现偏差的重要原因,从表2中可以看出,随着尺度降低,表面力相对作用增强而体积力作用效果减弱,造成了与常规尺度不同的流动换热特性。而在强预冷发动机紧凑快速强换热技术中,由尺度效应引起的共性问题主要包括表面粗糙度和固体轴向导热问题。此外,强预冷发动机中的换热过程工质主要包括处于远离临界点的超临界氦及超临界煤油、存在跨临界过程(如液氢、液态甲烷等)的超临界压力工质[41],这类工质的物性变化带来了与热力状态强耦合的换热强化/恶化及湍流结构耦合换热等问题。
在表面粗糙度影响方面,常规尺度表现为水力光滑的通道绝对粗糙度对于微小尺度通道而言则不可忽略,现有研究工作认为表面粗糙度对微小通道流动换热问题的影响主要集中在转捩、流阻和换热3方面。首先,Wang[42]、Yang[43-44]和Lin[45]等通过大量实验指出,微小尺度通道内的转捩、流阻、换热受尺度降低和表面粗糙度共同作用(见图3(a)、图3(b)),其中,Lin等[45]的实验研究表明,较大的相对粗糙度造成了明显的提前转捩及流阻和换热的增强(见图3(c))。其次,为探究微小尺度下粗糙度对流动及换热的贡献,Kleinstreuer[46]、Guo[47]及Kadivar[48] 等分别提出了通过高斯函数和分形几何等方式生成表面粗糙度,通过微观流动分析指出粗糙表面产生的流动再循环及分离是粗糙度对微小尺度流动阻力的重要影响因素。然而,在指导微小尺度流动设计的摩擦阻力方面,研究者开展了大量实验研究但仍存在争议[49-50]。Mala[51]、Li[52]等以微细光滑石英管和粗糙不锈钢管为对象开展了摩擦规律实验研究,表明微尺度通道的摩擦因子明显高于传统理论,但Qu[53]、Sara[54] 等则指出传统管流理论可以有效预测200~400 µm级圆管内摩擦损失。因此,在强预冷发动机微小尺度管内流动分析方面,需仔细甄别规律适用条件及范围。
在固体轴向导热影响方面,在微小通道内部,该项因素对流动换热的影响占比增加。Maranzana[55]和Kroeger[56] 等提出了无量纲参数M和无量纲导热系数$ \lambda $用以衡量轴向导热影响,当此类判别参数达到阈值时,则认为轴向导热影响不可被忽略。Lelea[57]及Moharana[58] 等的研究指出,当轴向导热产生较大影响时,换热器壁面温度分布显示出非线性变化,并偏离理想条件的线性变化规律(见图4)。进一步地,Quintero[59]、Aminuddin[60]、Nellis[61]等建立了换热单元内部轴向导热模型,针对轴向导热对换热器设计的影响及修正方法开展了广泛深入的研究工作,Baek等[62]则提出了降低轴向导热影响的调控及设计手段。
除上述由尺度效应带来的共性问题外,在强预冷发动机中存在强热流密度梯度的条件下,超临界压力换热介质(氢、甲烷等)跨临界时热物性的快速变化对流动换热带来了复杂影响,主要表现为换热强化和换热恶化2种形式,其发生一般是相伴的,且部分情况下会从换热强化转变至换热恶化,严重影响了强换热器可靠稳定工作的能力[63-64]。
在微小尺度管内换热恶化/强化问题方面,Dang[65]、Wang[66]等以超临界CO2为介质开展了微小尺度圆管流动换热实验研究,结果表明,在拟临界点附近换热获得强化,且由于超临界流体的物性参数在流向及截面方向均存在较强梯度,强变热物性、浮升力及其作用方向显著影响其对流换热能力。同样地,Gu[67]、Votta[68]、李辉[38]等也在航空航天背景下以超临界压力低温甲烷为对象通过实验研究发现了强化换热现象,并针对工程应用提出了修正方法。超临界压力下由流体浮升力和热膨胀加速主导的流动结构改变引起换热恶化是这一领域的一种主流学说[69-70]。Hall和Jackson[69]为恶化机制提供了一种理论解释,表明主导换热恶化的因素是管道剪切力应力分布及湍流结构的改变;同样,Zhu等[71]指出换热恶化中浮升力影响湍流动能强度是影响壁面附近热量传输的重要因素;Liu等[72]则通过直接数值模拟(direct numerical simulation,DNS)手段研究指出换热过程中近壁面热加速效应对于湍流产生过程的抑制作用是换热恶化的原因之一。
此外,在湍流结构耦合换热影响方面,微小通道内部湍流结构耦合换热机理的核心在于强换热条件下近壁复杂湍流结构的改变,因此,理解近壁湍流结构的形成原因、演化规律及相互间的作用影响,对于揭示微小尺度通道内超临界工质湍流流动与换热机理尤为重要。多项研究[73-74]揭示了壁面加热对黏度随温度变化的层流剪切流线性稳定性的影响,进一步阐明了加热对转捩的影响。另外,关于湍流结构与换热耦合的研究聚焦于浮力和/或流向加速度的影响上(见图5),因为这些因素将导致湍流强度和湍流混合的衰减。例如,Kurganov等[75]将换热恶化与速度和剪切应力分布的变化相关联,指出这是受负压梯度流动中浮力的影响;Sun[76]、Cao[77] 等通过三维大涡模拟详细分析了浮力对亚临界和超临界流体换热的影响机制,证明了浮力能显著抑制由不可逆黏性耗散导致的能量损失,且削弱了湍流热传输,而忽略浮力将高估超临界流体换热能力;Cao等[77]指出在浮力和热加速度作用下,湍流流动和换热受浮力和温度加速度主导。此外,针对发动机真实振动环境下微小尺度通道内部超临界工质强化流动换热问题,Zou等[78]通过理论结合仿真分析手段,揭示了振动惯性生成项主导的特征旋涡结构和旋涡倾斜导致的湍流二次流是周期性振动激励促进超临界工质管流换热性能强化的关键机理,进一步发现了强密度分层的管流中通过施加横向振动激励来维持第三类普朗特二次流的新机制,可为强预冷发动机内部紧凑快速强换热器构建湍流换热提供的新思路。
对于微小尺度阵列管束形式强预冷器而言,空气通常以横掠管束的形式与管内冷却剂换热。深入理解壁面换热环境下圆柱管束的基本换热单元复杂流场中流动结构的演化规律、掌握流动结构与壁面换热间的相互作用机制,对于紧凑快速强换热技术研究具有重要意义。
首先,针对叉排管束流动发展与演化现象,大量研究表明,当流向叉排管排数达到一定数量后,流动换热将进入充分发展阶段。在前排管束区能够观察到比较明显的较大尺度流向涡,而后排流场中的旋涡结构尺度变小,如图6所示[79]。Yoo等[80]针对6排叉排管束的常温实验表明,第2排管和第3排管的平均Nu数分别比第1排管高出30%以上和65%以上,前3排管管壁局部换热系数的周向分布规律不同,但此后流动充分发展,分布规律相似。Webber和Taylor[81]在SABRE飞行包线中强预冷器的来流Re数范围(1016~5043)内,针对21排叉排管矩阵开展实验,结果表明,叉排管束流向上第16排时的流动已经达到95%的充分发展程度[81],因此,第16排及以后的圆管换热特性可以代表强预冷器管束中的大多数管排(流向深度超过150排)。
在流动结构与壁面换热相互作用机制方面,影响壁面换热变化的流动结构包括壁湍流相干结构和自由流湍流流动结构,研究学者对此开展了广泛的研究工作[82]。首先,相干结构在近壁区湍流动量输运现象中扮演重要角色[83],Kong等[84]指出,在等壁温和等热流2种不同的壁面边界条件下,近壁区温度分布与流动结构分布均具有较强的相似性。具体而言,相干结构主要以成对出现反向旋转的流向涡对的形式存在[85-86],在壁面被加热的情况下,流体下扫区外侧低温流体受到流向涡的诱导流向壁面,使壁面换热能力加强,出现低温条带,而在流体上扬区,由于流体在抵达此区域前已经和壁面换热而升温,导致壁面出现高温条带。与壁湍流相干结构相似,Hubble 等[87]指出自由流湍流来流对壁面滞止区换热强化的物理机制也是旋转方向相反的涡对诱导引发的流体上扬和下扫,如图7所示。然而,上述2类不同尺度的流动结构对壁面换热能力的影响程度不同,存在主控流动结构,根据已有研究结果,壁面附近的速度和热流密度时序信号的总体变化趋势十分相似,即使信号各自的能谱均不存在典型的峰值频率,但二者的互相干系数在低频时具有较大值[88-89],这表明影响壁面换热的主控流动结构主要为低频大尺度流动结构。而对于单管圆柱绕流,影响圆柱后侧壁面对流换热能力的主控流动结构为圆柱后方脱落的卡门涡及其诱导的二次涡[79]。
其次,壁面换热对流动结构也会产生重要影响。在壁面绝热时,基于尾迹脱落频率、圆柱后方回流区长度、近尾迹区雷诺应力等圆柱绕流特征参数随来流Re数的变化规律,可将不可压缩圆柱绕流区分为7种流型[90],而壁面换热会导致这些特征参数发生显著变化,并改变区分各流型的关键Re数[91-92]。在热壁面条件下,壁温越大,空气与壁面换热温差越大,相同Re数下的St数降低,也即涡脱落频率降低,区分各流型的关键Re数增大[93-94],如图8所示。图中:T*为壁温与自由来流温度比值。当壁温达到某一临界温度后,换热温差的增大导致Gr数增大,浮升力影响增强,脱落频率进一步大幅降低。随着壁温进一步提高,尾迹摆动及相应的脉动速度幅值减小,直到变为0[95],针对适用于强预冷器问题的冷壁面被外流空气加热问题,北航团队[79]研究表明,影响流动熵产和换热熵产的主控流动结构均为相对于卡门涡脱落频率更高的小尺度结构,其中心频率约为卡门涡特征频率的7倍。此外,管壁壁温降低时,单管圆柱下游流体二阶统计量(黏性应力、雷诺应力和湍动能)均变大,分离剪切层的K-H不稳定性增强,回流区边界处湍流脉动对流向动量的横向输运能力变强,回流区长度变短。
而涡脱落频率与激振/共振也会在强预冷器这种圆管叉排阵列结构内产生显著影响。首先,这种排列方式在相同Re数条件下较顺排排列方式具备更佳的换热性能,但同时也会带来更大的流动损失[96-97]。Kim等[98]针对叉排管束的实验结果表明,当涡脱落频率接近流动结构的一阶固有频率并引发声学共振后,测得的流动压降明显高于Žukauskas经验关联式预测结果。进一步地,陈一鸣等[99]的大涡模拟结果表明,前排管束的流动结构为有规律的剪切层运动和尾涡脱落,管壁瞬时Nu数具有较为固定的波动频率,而后排管束的流动结构为无规律的小尺度旋涡结构,流场表现出无序性,无固定波动频率。Ziada和Oeng[100]在正三角形叉排排列、常规尺度管束的实验研究中观察到了3个不同的涡脱落频率分量。Blevins[101]归纳了不同文献中不同叉排排列方式的研究结果,指出大部分研究均观察到了多个涡脱落频率,并分析和归纳了平行三角形排列方式的管间距对3个涡脱落频率的影响,如图9(a)、(b)所示;Linton和Thornber[102]以SABRE强预冷器为背景,采用DNS方法对管径0.8 mm的小尺度叉排管束开展研究,结果表明,当基于水力直径的雷诺数增长到约2500时,低频St数(St1)开始出现,此时的周期性频率特征不再完全由不同圆管尾迹之间的相互作用引起。低Re数下,高频St数(St2)由上游圆管涡流撞击引起的涡交替脱落产生,与单管情况下由尾迹涡的相互作用引起所不同。高Re数下,单管流动中导致剪切层破裂的不稳定性也在叉排管束剪切层中起作用,St2与剪切层高度活跃有关,St1与驻点的振荡有关,如图9(c)、图9(d)所示。一方面,圆管的涡脱落会通过激振或共振影响换热器使用寿命,甚至达到破坏性强度,导致工作突然失效[101,103];另一方面,北航团队[104]的研究还表明,来流压力变化频率达到流场固有频率时,也将引起共振并导致换热性能发生剧烈振荡。为避免上述后果,有效的解决办法是增加翅片或挡板,提高流动结构的固有频率[98]。
此外,虽然标准的叉排管束换热器已得到广泛应用,但仍存在一定的换热性能提升空间,也即圆管下游背风侧Nu数远小于迎风侧[105],可进一步提高,如图10所示。因此,许多研究通过增加管周或管外翅片/涡流发生器[106-107]、增大换热表面粗糙度[108]、采用凸轮形管设计[109]等方式,来强化叉排管束换热性能。例如,涡流发生器诱导的纵向涡可减小圆管下游换热恶化区或尾迹区,从而提高换热速率[97]。
强预冷发动机的紧凑快速强换热器恶劣的工作环境和严苛的性能需求对其设计能力提出了极高要求。传统民用换热器设计方法在综合考虑极端工作环境、强物性变化、复杂非均匀流动换热方面,以及提升全域性能指标及鲁棒性等方面有所不足。本节将针对紧凑快速强换热器的气动热力分析及设计方法进行综述。
强预冷发动机作为宽域动力系统,其流量范围动辄达到百公斤量级,致使强预冷器等换热器部件尺度最大将达到数十厘米至1 m以上,然而从图11可以看出,其基本换热单元在数十至数百微米级别,巨大的尺度差异致使当前虽然可以对基本换热单元单独开展仿真分析,但现有仿真能力难以完成真实发动机尺度全尺寸包含数以万计微细管束的强预冷器的建模仿真,因此,发展具备较高保真度的快速仿真计算方法,对于指导和校验紧凑快速强换热器设计具有重要意义。
近年来,基于虚拟源项模型的快速仿真分析方法被众多研究人员采纳并用于强预冷发动机中紧凑快速强换热器的研究,此类方法采用均匀结构网格替代复杂管束矩阵,并用数值预测替代实际物理作用,具有网格划分简单、计算速度快等显著优势,已在各类多管束或多通道换热器中得到广泛应用。具体而言,虚拟源项模型可细分为多孔介质模型、双单元换热模型、分布式体积热源法、均匀体积热源法等,仿真计算时,均只需对换热器所占空间划分均匀结构网格并附加动量源项和能量源项,简化示意图如图12所示。
其中,多孔介质模型是普遍认可的压降模拟准则,该模型将强预冷器的叉排管矩阵类比为多孔介质,通过经典的Darcy-Forchheimer方程[111]来描述流体流经多孔介质后的压降$ \Delta P $与平均流速U的近似关系。对于各向同性情况,其基本表达式如下:
$ \frac{\Delta P}{\Delta n}={C}_{1}\mu U+{C}_{2}\frac{\rho {U}^{2}}{2} $
式中:$ \Delta n $为流向长度;$ \mu $为黏度;$ \rho $为流体密度;$ {C}_{1} $和${C}_{2} $分别为黏性阻力系数和惯性阻力系数,通常以拟合实验数据、仿真数据或低维模型数据的方式获取。
将式(1)以动量源项$ {S}_{{\mathrm{m}}}=-\Delta P/\Delta n $的形式加入动量方程,即可模拟强预冷器对空气的流动阻力。考虑到高雷诺数下黏性项$ {C}_{1}\mu U $的贡献较小[112],Chung等[113]在PCHE强换热器的压降模拟中选择忽略黏性项。此外,考虑到强预冷器在轴向、周向和径向上具有较高的各向异性,Wei等[114]采用了各向异性多孔介质模型来评估空气总压损失。
同时,多孔介质模型还提供了热平衡和非热平衡2种状态下的换热模拟方法。对于适用性更强的非热平衡状态,需定义一个在空间上与多孔介质流体区重合的固体区,流体区和固体区仅在换热方面存在相互作用,简化的能量方程分别如式(2)和式(3)所示[115]:
$ \frac{\partial }{\partial t}\left(\gamma {\rho }_{{\mathrm{f}}}{E}_{{\mathrm{f}}}\right)+\nabla \cdot \left[{\boldsymbol{v}}({\rho }_{{\mathrm{f}}}{E}_{{\mathrm{f}}})\right]=\nabla \cdot \left(\gamma {k}_{{\mathrm{f}}}\nabla {T}\right)_{{\mathrm{f}}}+{S}_{h,{\mathrm{f}}}$
$ \frac{\partial }{\partial t}\left[\left(1-\gamma \right){\rho }_{{\mathrm{s}}}{E}_{{\mathrm{s}}}\right]=\nabla \cdot \left[\left(1-\gamma \right){k}_{{\mathrm{s}}}\nabla {T}_{{\mathrm{s}}}\right]+{S}_{h,{\mathrm{s}}} $
式中:下标f和s分别表示流体区和固体区;$ \gamma $为孔隙率;E为总能量;k为导热系数;$ \boldsymbol{v} $为速度矢量;$ {S}_{h,{\mathrm{f}}}={h}_{{\mathrm{fs}}}{A}_{{\mathrm{fs}}}({T}_{{\mathrm{s}}}-{T}_{{\mathrm{f}}}) $和$ {S}_{h,{\mathrm{s}}}=-{S}_{h,{\mathrm{f}}} $分别为流体域和固体域的对流换热能量源项,$ {h}_{{\mathrm{fs}}} $为对流换热系数,$ {A}_{{\mathrm{fs}}} $为多孔介质面积密度。
一些学者在使用多孔介质模型开展研究时,对其适用性有更深入的思考和发展。Chen等[116]的研究表明,非热平衡态多孔介质模型可以准确预测具有大量微通道的PCHE强换热器的流动换热性能,而随着微通道数量减少引起流动不均匀性增加,预测相对误差会显著增加。Wu等[117]则指出上述两能量方程多孔介质模型无法反映管内流体的非均匀换热,因此,引入第三能量方程来计算固体内部换热过程。在强预冷器这一应用背景下,第三能量方程也即代表了内部冷却剂的换热过程。
此外,Ding等[118]将双单元换热模型引入强预冷器换热模拟。热传递通过换热速率或换热单元数(number of transfer units,NTU)的形式求解[119]。Wang等[120]采用分布式体积热源法实现强预冷器空气换热模拟,基于强预冷器低维模型求解预冷区不同位置的目标温度,并直接以体积热源$ {S}_{h,{\mathrm{cell}}} $的形式加入各网格单元能量方程。深入分析此类简化仿真手段,其核心难点是模型简化过度或验证说服力不足致使其可靠性缺乏有效保证。为此,北航团队[121]进一步提出了一种可考虑空气轴向和径向非均匀性的分布式体积热源法。耦合流道的高维验证表明,强预冷器空气温降及总压损失与真实模型的相对误差均在±1%以内,而网格量较真实模型降幅达95%以上。此外,将该方法应用于燃料直接预冷发动机总体性能计算后发现,强预冷器低维模型低估了空气总压损失及燃料预冷用量,进而分别导致发动机净推力和燃烧当量比出现更大计算偏差。
$ {S}_{h,{\mathrm{cell}}}=\frac{{\dot{m}}_{{\mathrm{cell}}}{c}_{p}\left({T}_{{\mathrm{aim}}}-{T}_{{\mathrm{loc}}}\right)}{{V}_{{\mathrm{cell}}}} $
式中:$ {S}_{h,{\mathrm{cell}}} $为网格体积热源项;$ {\dot{m}}_{{\mathrm{cell}}} $为网格内质量流量;$ {c}_{p} $为定压比热容;$ T $为单元内温度,下标aim和loc分别表示预测的目标数值和网格单元局部数值;$ {V}_{{\mathrm{cell}}} $为网格单元体积。
上述几种换热模拟方法均对能量源项或体积热源进行精细求解,具有较好的物理可解释性。与此同时,还有文献[122-123]以探讨强预冷器对进气道性能的影响为研究目标,故仅通过给定整体的均匀体积热源$ {S}_{h}=Q/V $实现基础换热模拟。表3归纳总结了上述所有换热器简化换热模拟方法的示意图和源项求解特点。
对于强预冷器的真实工程设计及分析过程来讲,全部采用真实几何开展全尺寸仿真研究将受限于计算仿真能力,短期内难以实现,采用简化分析手段将成为主要手段之一。综上研究可以看出,采用简化模型的核心在于保证真实流动换热模拟的高保真度,因此,在模型构建过程中应注重基于物理过程的模拟及合理化简化,而在工程实践中还应注重与实验相结合的模型修正与完善。
强预冷发动机内部紧凑快速强换热器工质常为以超临界氢、甲烷、煤油为代表的易燃易爆且强变物性工质,在研究初期采用此类工质开展验证存在安全风险。为此,研究人员常在研究初期基于安全的换热介质开展实验研究以降低实验难度,并采用相似分析方法得到真实换热介质流动换热特性。传统利用Re数和Pr数的相似原理在经典换热研究中已经得到广泛应用[124],但上述强预冷常用工质物性沿流向及径向均存在较强梯度,且存在换热强化或恶化等换热异常现象,使现有基于常物性假设的对流换热相似准则不再适用,为此,研究人员针对这类强变物性工质在截面内的换热相似开展了针对性研究[125-127]。Pioro等[128]指出可利用无量纲压力、无量纲温度及Re数实现工质间相似变换;Cheng等[129]为提升相似准确性,将控制方程无量纲化结合保证热物性相似进而改进了相似准则;Zahlan等[130]则基于超临界流体实验数据对无量纲参数幂进行了修正。而针对换热通道内流动相似问题,Ambrosini[131]提出了基于无量纲比焓的跨拟临界数和亚拟临界数方法,可以保证不同超临界流体的无量纲壁温比焓分布均具有较好的一致性,但Nu数存在一定差异。李辉[132]基于几何相似、热物性相似、动力相似和边界条件相似,围绕强预冷发动机常用燃料换热工质开展了强变物性影响下的对流换热相似方法研究,建立了可考虑强物性变化影响的对流换热相似准则及相似变换流程,验证表明该方法可保证整个通道内相同无量纲比焓截面处无量纲温度场及无量纲速度场相似,在验证工况中,2种流体Nu数的相对偏差均小于±20%,为降低强预冷发动机内紧凑快速强换热研究实验难度及安全风险提供了重要方法支撑。
强预冷发动机内紧凑快速强换热器复杂的工作环境和严苛的性能要求对设计方法提出了更严格的要求。因此,针对性发展能综合考虑其复杂流动换热状态的精细化及不确定性设计方法对于保证其在强预冷发动机内部高效工作十分重要,本节综述了考虑精细化及不确定性的紧凑快速强换热设计技术。
高精度的换热经验关联式是紧凑快速强换热器设计的基础,如前文指出,强预冷发动机主要涉及超临界介质微小尺度通道及空气横掠管束经验关联式2类。
在微小尺度管内流动换热方面,由于受到强物性变化及浮升力、热加速等作用的耦合影响,目前,针对不同工质、不同运行条件尚无统一的低维预测模型。北航团队[38,132]通过实验研究给出了计及近壁面物性修正的微细圆管内超临界甲烷换热关联式。
燃料裂解吸热是近年来高超声速动力主动冷却技术的一个重要研究方向。发生化学反应时,通道内剧烈的物性变化及化学反应与流动换热的交互作用带来了不同于常规流动换热的流动换热特性,常规经验关联式不能精确预测其流动换热特性。目前,相关研究相对有限,且主要集中在碳氢燃料领域。Kimura等[133]首先提出了描述化学吸热效应的无量纲数,从而量化由化学吸热带来的换热增强效果;Yu等[134]则通过碳氢燃料热裂解实验提出描述化学吸热量占比的无量纲参数,并针对Dittus-Boelter换热关联式提出修正;Xu等[135]同样基于碳氢燃料的热裂解反应,引入了有效比热容和有效导热系数概念,对Jackson关联式[136]进行了拓展和修正;张议丰[137]则基于Kimura等[133]的工作,同样根据Jackson关联式[136]进行修正,进一步提出了碳氢燃料蒸汽重整过程的流动换热经验关联式。
此外,研究人员针对超临界氦、甲烷等工质开展了大量微小尺度通道换热研究并发展了相应经验关联式,如文献[138-151]所示,可为紧凑快速强换热设计提供依据。
此外,对于微细管叉排阵列形式强预冷器涉及的横掠叉排管束换热经验关联,国内外研究学者开展了大量的理论及实验研究[152-162],其中,Žukauskas[153]详尽分析了空气横掠单管及管束的局部换热特征和平均换热性能,给出了最具代表性的经验关联式。然而,Žukauskas公式在计算具有小直径、小管间距特征的微小尺度管束平均换热系数时是否适用仍存在争议[159-161],为此研究学者在小管径叉排构型方面开展了大量理论与实验研究。其中,Bacellar等[162]基于CFD手段获得了0.5~2.0 mm圆管叉排管束的流动及换热经验关联式,研究表明,与90%原始数据对比,该关联式的误差在20%范围内。另外,整理了微小管束相关换热经验关联式[152-158],可为微细管叉排阵列形式强预冷器设计提供参考。
紧凑快速强预冷器设计过程主要包括基本形式选择、换热及压降设计。本节给出了强预冷器精细化设计过程构建方法。
首先,基本形式的选择主要取决于使用环境限制、边界条件约束下对于流动换热的综合考量与折中。例如,图2中给出了目前被认为流动换热综合性能优秀的一种强预冷器布局形式[110,163],该布局是综合考虑强预冷器流阻及飞行阻力的折中方案。一方面,强预冷器为减小空气压降,应具有较大的迎风面积以降低摩擦损失。另一方面,飞行器若想减小飞行阻力,需尽可能地降低截面积。然而,当强预冷器与飞行器迎风面重合,即采用轴向进、出气方案时,虽保证了较小的迎风阻力,但强预冷器空气侧阻力过大,而无法接受。因此,将强预冷器设计为径向进气、轴向出气,空气侧迎风面积的变大仅会增加部分长度而不会增加额外截面积,有效实现了紧凑空间内阻力的折中。
在基本形式确定的基础上,紧凑快速强换热设计的核心是在受限空间内低阻高效换热的实现,除上述高适用性及高准确度经验关联式作为基础外,另一关键是准确地对强预冷器内部各位置流动换热的精确设计。为此,北航团队[164]构建了基于多维耦合的紧凑快速强换热精细化设计方法,耦合零维(0D)-二维(2D)各自优势,可在较短时间内综合考虑强物性变化、强预冷器真实构型及非均匀来流等因素影响,获得强预冷器内部温度、压力及换热系数等关键参数分布信息。
0D方法是最为简单成熟的方法,其将换热器视为一个整体,利用有限温差法(logarithmic mean temperature difference, LMTD)、ε-NTU、P-NTU、ψ-P和P1-P2等多种典型方法[124],构建了换热功率、进出口参数及换热面积间的定量关系。对于换热介质物性变化较小、工作环境较为均匀的强换热器,采用该方法可以在短时间内获取换热器基本性能。
而当强换热器介质物性及换热系数沿程剧烈变化时,0D设计方法由于其设计过程平均物性这一特点而导致无法捕捉内部物性剧烈变化下的换热特异状态,因而换热器整体流动换热设计将存在较大偏差。Saeed等[165]开展性能设计方法研究时发现,整体换热评估方法会严重低估低雷诺数下Nu数,最严重时可达30%以上。为解决这一问题,研究人员基于离散化思想提出了一维(1D)/二维(2D)离散化设计分析方法,如图13所示。
紧凑快速强换热器一般具有周期性特征,基于此离散化最小周期单元开展设计分析,则可在提高设计准确度的同时降低模型难度。例如,针对SABRE发动机强预冷器这种典型结构,在轴向参数均匀假定下,轴向最小单元为保留管束叉排特征(2~3排管束)的环形切片,进一步该模型可沿周向划分为N个相同的扇形单元。若符合周向均匀性假设,则每个扇形单元内的局部流动与换热过程完全一致,即一根完整毛细管的Nr段短管可以依次拼接为单个扇形单元。
通过上述手段,可以将强预冷器由原本的三维(3D)流动换热过程降低至径向1D,大幅缩减了流动换热设计难度,设计计算流程如图14所示。设计人员在得到设计要求后(流体流量、总压损失等),应首先假定强预冷器的宏观及细节几何参数(内外径、管间距等)。随后,针对图13(a)中的1号离散单元,假定冷/热流体出口热力参数以获得流体物性,进而基于经验关联式获得初步计算结果并与猜测值对比。迭代至残差满足要求后,通过边界条件对应关系赋予2号离散单元边界。重复上述流程即可获得Nr号离散单元的热力参数,并与强预冷器初始设计条件对比,迭代得到收敛解。最后,若冷、热流体总压损失高于设计要求,则应继续改变几何参数直至得到满足设计要求的设计方案。
强预冷发动机在真实工作时,由于飞行状态变化、吸入外部高温气流等因素,会不可避免地在强预冷器入口形成非均匀来流条件[120]。如图15所示,为解决该问题,北航团队[164]提出了一种考虑全周的非均匀来流的2D精细化设计方法,在Ma=4来流条件下通过实验得到的换热功率预测误差均低于±10%(见图15(b))[166-167],在一定程度上验证了该方法在仿真快速计算性能方面的工程可用性。如图15(a)所示,该模型沿周向共划分了N个图13中的强预冷器扇形单元,由于每个基本换热单元又包含Nr个径向扇形单元,2D离散设计模型中共包含N × Nr个强预冷器单元体。通过引入2D离散设计模型,可捕捉进口周向不均匀条件下强预冷器内部热力参数的分布情况,进而分析非均匀来流与换热过程的耦合作用关系。此外,高远等[168]提出了一种针对强预冷器扇形单元的二维离散化模型,可以捕捉强预冷器扇形单元内部各节点处的气动热力参数;北航团队[169]则提出了一种考虑化学反应机理的强预冷器2D离散化仿真分析方法,在上述基础上可以进一步考虑强预冷器内部流体热解等化学反应对流动换热的综合影响。此外,Hoopes等[170]为降低非设计点性能评估复杂度,采用一种基于1D离散化结合Nu数修正的换热器无几何信息非设计工况工作特性评估方法,北航团队[171]通过实验校验了该方法良好的评估准确度。
基于该精细化设计方法,北航团队围绕强预冷发动机需求完成了超临界氦、超临界甲烷、超临界煤油、氢、液氮等多种结构形式紧凑快速强换热器设计,如图16所示。经实验验证,强预冷器换热功率、空气侧总压恢复系数及空气出口温度的实验值均与模型预测值吻合度高,其中,存在跨临界强变物性流动换热过程的超临界甲烷强预冷器实验结果与设计值最大相对偏差分别为8.94%、–0.34%和–1.62%[132],证明了该方法具有良好的设计精度。
上述1D、2D离散化方法除对螺旋线形式强预冷器适用外,在PCHE强换热器设计方法中也已经得到了广泛的应用[172-173]。但是,对于PCHE形式强换热而言,尺度效应带来的轴向导热问题及复杂结构下热阻是精细化设计需要考虑的另一重要问题[55-56]。常用方法是将轴向导热处理在ε-NTU法中处理为轴向导热数进行处理。在此基础上,李欢[171]提出了一种并联热阻模型,在考虑轴向导热的基础上,基于临界截面将PCHE半圆通道基本换热单元分割为2个子单元,如图17所示,而后分解为带第三类边界条件一维导热问题求解,提高了该类型换热器设计准确度。此外,Quintero[59]、Nellis[61]等也建立了不同的换热器模型,分别考虑了轴向和横向二维导热影响及轴向导热、外部热流和物性变化影响。
强预冷发动机中,PCHE形式紧凑快速强换热器由于受发动机进气布局等影响较小,且由于换热工质均为超临界压力流体,可实现较小的流动损失,因此,可通过更为精细化的微小尺度异形通道设计实现强化换热效果。
首先,在PCHE的通道横截面形状方面,现有研究涉及半圆形、圆形、矩形、梯形、三角形等多种形式[174-175]。Lee等[174]针对半圆、矩形、梯形、圆形的Z形通道PCHE开展了效能、换热面积、摩擦系数等重要参数的对比,结果显示,矩形的换热性能最佳,流动性能最差,圆形的换热性能最差;Jeon等[176]针对半圆形、三角形、矩形3种直通道PCHE流动换热性能的研究表明,在同等水力直径和质量流量条件下,PCHE的通道横截面形状对流动换热性能的影响并不显著。总而言之,在PCHE实际设计过程中,需要结合具体工作环境、通道形式和加工能力进行考虑。目前,半圆形的通道是综合性能及加工可实现性下最为常见的一种通道截面形状。
在增强换热方面,研究人员还通过在通道内部增加扰流结构以增强换热。Aneesh等[177]在通道内增加了半球形凸起,这种方式产生了更多漩涡,增强换热的同时使得流动损失相应增大。当半球数量超过2个后,换热能力变化减缓而压力损失不断增大。Han等[178]在PCHE通道中通过添加肋以增强换热,研究表明,一种离散分布的短肋条可使换热能力提升19.3%~19.8%。此外,Zhao[179]、Ali[180] 等分别在PCHE通道内部添加不同形式的挡板以在增强换热的同时尽可能降低流动损失。
优化通道形式是PCHE精细化设计中的常见手段,现有研究方案较为丰富,大体可分为连续型和非连续型两大类,一些典型方案示意图如图18所示。现有研究表明,不同的通道形式往往需要在流动损失和换热能力2个方面进行协调,而一些特殊的优化结构可以在换热能力基本不变的条件下得到更好的流动性能。
连续型通道中,以直通道和Z形通道最具代表性,同时还有正弦形、蛇形等多种形式[181-183]。相对而言,直通道具有最低的压力损失,而Z形通道通过转折处的局部湍流强化了换热性能,较为简单的加工难度使其同样广受关注。Ngo[184]和Meshram[185]等在各自研究范围内针对Z形通道的研究均得到相似结论,即Z形通道的换热能力得到增强,但流动损失大幅增加。其中,Meshram等[185]的研究表明,Z形通道Nu数相比于直通道提升约50%,流动损失放大4~5倍。而围绕流动损失问题,研究人员也通过通道优化改进方式开展了相关研究。Lee等[186]通过在转角处插入直通道或替换为波浪形通道抑制了流动分离,削弱了流动损失;Xu等[187]提出了一种扭转式Z形通道,通过20°的扭转角实现了13%的换热性能强化并具有更低的流动损失。
在非连续型通道中,S形翅片、正弦形翅片、翼形结构及仿生结构是精细化设计中被研究人员重点关注的方向。Ngo等[184]研究得出了S形翅片相对于Z形通道流动损失降低约80%,而换热能力仅下降24%~34%;Saeed等[188]提出一种正弦形翅片方案以抑制流体的回流和分离问题,相较于传统Z形通道压力损失降低了2.4倍,而换热能力至多可提升21%;Kim等[189]采用NACA0020翼型翅片,在保证和Z形通道相似换热性能的前提下流动损失仅为Z形通道的5%;同时,Kim[190]、Li[191]及Cui[192] 等基于此通过对翼形肋安装形式角度进行精细化设计及翼形改进,以进一步提升流动换热性能;此外,Xu等[193]提出一种剑鱼仿生形翅片结构,Lu等[194]研究表明,和Z形通道相比,剑鱼仿生翅片的换热能力提升了15%~21%,而流动损失降低33%。上述不同通道形式流动换热研究可为强预冷发动机内PCHE形式紧凑快速强换热器精细化设计提供重要参考。
此外,综合上述2种典型构型换热器设计方法,结合预冷发动机对于空气-氦强预冷器及氢-氦强换热器这2类不同类型换热器性能需求可以看出,两者设计理念的共性是尽可能实现高单位质量换热能力及高紧凑度,以降低在发动机安装环境下的质量及体积代偿。然而,由于强预冷器直接安装在发动机进气道及压气机之间,存在更为显著的工况多变及流动非均匀性问题,对上下游影响更为显著,因此,在设计优化方向选择中,应更为关注非均匀来流条件下高效换热及包线范围内流动换热,尤其是流动阻力问题。
上述紧凑快速强换热设计均属于围绕一给定工况及名义设计参数的确定性过程。然而,真实条件下,换热器存在不确定性会对其实际工作性能产生影响[195]。Cho[196]前期研究指出,采用确定性设计的换热器在真实环境下实现设计热力性能的置信概率仅50%。为此,研究人员已围绕换热器内部不确定性来源及影响开展了部分理论研究及设计方法改进工作。Haseler等[197]研究了流体物性不确定性对不同种类换热过程的影响;Berryman[198]、Badar[199] 等在换热器设计过程中引入随机模型,基于蒙特卡罗模拟给出设计方差,并开展了不确定性影响分析。
紧凑快速强换热器热力设计的不确定性因素主要包含随机不确定性和认知不确定性2类。其中,随机不确定性是强换热器及其环境的内在可变性,具体表现包括:换热单元直径及壁厚等几何加工误差、冷/热来流气动热力参数(温度、压力和流量)波动等;认知不确定性主要包括设计模拟简化及假设、经验关联式及物性计算模型等。这2方面问题共同作用,使紧凑快速强换热器在真实匹配装机环境下偏离设计工作状态,进而影响强预冷发动机可靠高效工作。
针对上述非确定性问题,北航团队发展了强预冷发动机紧凑快速强换热器非确定性设计方法[132,200],分别构建了基本换热单元、来流热力参数等不确定性来源及分布模型,如图19所示(图中$\mu ' $为外径测量值的平均值);进一步基于蒙特卡罗及SOBOL方法构建了紧凑快速强换热器分析及设计流程。基于此,北航团队针对超临界工质强预冷器不确定性设计展开了深入研究,探究了来流参数、工质物性及几何偏差等输入参数不确定度对强预冷器设计的影响,相关结果如图20所示。研究表明,强预冷器总换热量近似呈威布尔分布,且高温来流温度是影响其分布形式的主要因素。由于强预冷器所需换热面积同样受输入不确定性影响,为保证设计置信度达到95%,换热面积的计算冗余应不低于27.7%;而当设计置信度达到99%时,总换热面积冗余将达到47.1%。
此外,北航团队[132]对紧凑快速强预冷器在发动机匹配环境下的实验结果开展了不确定性分析,如图21所示。结果表明,不同影响因素的敏感性大小不同,在相同不确定度情况下,强预冷器换热功率和空气出口温度对来流温度最敏感,而空气侧总压恢复系数对空气流量最为敏感,加工几何偏差的影响较小;且不确定度的分布形式是影响极端异常换热现象的重要因素,虽然不同分布形式下强预冷器工作性能统计均值与设计名义值均基本相同,但换热性能极端值及极端事件发生概率具有明显区别,将有可能直接影响强预冷器的工作安全性。
拓扑优化已成为换热器流动换热设计的重要方法之一,也可被借鉴用于强预冷发动机的紧凑快速强换热器设计之中。从理论上讲,拓扑优化具有最大的设计自由度,可实现远超传统设计方法的复杂换热器结构,当前变密度法和水平集法是最具代表性的参数化方法[201-202],其基本思想及原理可见文献[201-203]所述,其中,变密度法得益于较好的收敛性及更低的计算成本,是目前应用最广泛的换热器结构拓扑优化方法[204-206]。近年来,围绕变密度法优化分析精度问题,Osher等[201]提出水平集法以解决对流固边界敏感的换热器优化问题,Yaji等[207]基于水平集法开展了二维和三维流动换热耦合的拓扑优化研究,而Coffin和Maute[208]针对自然对流问题的稳态和瞬态工况开展了研究;进一步,以基函数或自定义函数的组合替代传统Hamilton-Jacobi控制方程成为水平集法研究的热点之一,Li等[209]基于一种简单条状结构构建了一组由8个额外参数确定的水平集函数,并构建了一种具备良好优化能力的微小尺度通道换热器拓扑优化框架。在理论研究之外,研究人员开展了相关实验研究与验证,如图22所示。Li[210]、Qian[211]、Mo[212]等均基于拓扑优化结果开展了换热器研制及实验验证工作,结果均验证了拓扑优化在增强换热、降低流动损失方面的有效性。
此外,伴随增材制造技术的发展,基于三周期极小曲面(triply periodic minimal surface, TPMS)的紧凑快速强换热器成为重要的研究方向[213],常见的TPMS类型包括IWP、Diamond、Gyroid、Primitive等(见图23)[214]。
Khalil[215]、Kaur[216] 等多个研究学者开展了TPMS换热器研究工作,结果表明,TPMS 结构具有更好的换热性能,因为孔隙率对这类换热器性能有着直接影响;Huang[217]、Men[218]、Shu[219] 等分别采用变密度法和水平集法开展了针对TPMS换热器的拓扑优化研究,并得到了换热和流阻的不同优化方向和结果。
同时,北航团队初步开展了TPMS换热器设计方法研究及实验验证(见图24),结果验证了这种新型换热器在流动换热增强方面的优势;此外,Huang等[220]将TPMS思路应用在强预冷发动机强预冷器中,探讨了TPMS应用于强预冷发动机的可能性。
可以看出,针对换热器的拓扑优化研究方法在过去的20年间已经得到长足的发展,部分换热器拓扑优化工作越来越贴近工程实践[210-212],且表现出强大的优化能力。TPMS换热器和拓扑优化作为紧凑快速强换热器的研究前沿,在换热器优化设计领域具备相当的潜力。但仍需注意的是,这类新型紧凑快速强换热器结构复杂,其换热功重比、紧凑度等指标性能的提升将显著依赖于加工制造水平的进步。
强预冷器在较低空域(约12 km以下)工作时,将面临管壁外侧狭窄通道内形成霜层或冰层问题,严重时将堵塞流道致使空气侧压力损失急剧增加且畸变加剧,此外霜层/冰层会显著增加热阻,使强预冷器换热性能急剧恶化,为此,有必要在强预冷器工作时采取一定措施对其进行抑霜/抑冰操作。目前,研究者针对强预冷器内部结霜问题开展了广泛的理论及实验研究工作[221-223],提出的抑霜/抑冰措施主要包括3种:①在主流中掺混减轻结霜的抑霜剂(如甲醇、甲醛等工质)或低温工质以提前析出冰粒,通过改变霜层形成或理化性质以降低霜层对流动换热的影响;②采用微纳结构、表面涂层等技术改变表面结构,进而降低霜层附着力以抑制表面结霜;③采用喷射固体颗粒或脉冲空气,利用粒子撞击或空气泡撞击霜层以抑制附着。本节分别综述了上述强预冷器抑霜/抑冰手段进展。
首先,对于抑霜剂喷射掺混方法,英国REL公司提出了一种强预冷器甲醇喷射抑霜装置,如图25所示[224]。通过喷射甲醇作为抑霜剂,并通过一种集成在强预冷器微细管阵列内部的回收结构收集气流中的水-甲醇混合物,宣称可以去除空气中99%的水分,进一步缓解堵塞问题。基于此,英国REL公司搭建了抑霜技术验证风洞并开展了实验研究[36],结果表明,在−80℃、100%相对湿度情况下可持续工作8 min,保证空气侧压力损失无明显变化。日本JAXA采用该技术也开展了大量的理论及实验研究[23],其中,Sato等[221]通过缩尺模型实验对比分析了不同抑霜剂效果,结果表明,甲醇具有最佳的抑霜效果,对比工况下可将强预冷器工作时间由20 s提升至300 s以上,乙醇与异丙醇也具有较为良好的效果。北航团队[225]从霜层形成过程出发,搭建了缩尺实验台并开展了霜层生长模式及影响规律研究,结果表明,强预冷器在低雷诺数及高雷诺数工况下结霜模式不同,较低雷诺数(Re≤1500)下,结霜可能会造成严重的管束变形,且表面润湿性也将显著影响结霜过程中的流动损失特性,如图26所示。在此基础上,北航团队联合上海交通大学团队[226-227]完善了强预冷器抑霜剂喷射设计方法及参数选取准则,通过缩尺实验验证了甲醇喷射抑霜的有效性。此外,北京动力机械研究所[228]、大连理工大学[229]等研究单位也开展了相关结霜与抑霜实验研究。
其次,基于表面微纳结构的抑霜/抑冰手段近年来越来越受到关注[230-232],其降低霜-表面附着力、减小霜层厚度、延迟结霜时间等特点使其有望成为解决强预冷器结霜问题的手段之一。主流观点认为表面润湿性和表面结构是影响抑霜效果的主要因素。国防科技大学岳晓菲[222]以强预冷器为研究背景,对疏水微纳结构表面开展了防冰抑霜性研究,提出了微-纳二级结构和高度规整、耐磨性强的单级结构是合适的防霜表面结构。东南大学、北京动力机械研究所[233]则从涂层手段出发开展了强预冷器抑霜研究,结果表明,在−20℃下ZnO超疏水表面可以延迟表面霜晶的形成长达7 min,结霜量减少了一半,在−150℃下超疏水表面仍有一定的抑制结霜的效果。此外,对于喷射固体颗粒或脉冲气流手段,Sonobe等[223]开展了实验研究(见图27),结果表明,该方法也可有效防止霜层聚积,初步验证了该方法的有效性。
然而,综合分析上述3种方法,虽然在研究过程中均表现出明显的抑霜效果,但也存在一些有待突破的问题:①对于抑霜剂喷射方法而言,其工质一般为可燃性气体,在强预冷器高温工作环境下可能存在工质局部达到可燃极限而高温下提前燃烧,这给强预冷发动机可靠安全工作带来隐患;②对于表面结构及涂层而言,首先是有研究表明在长时间工作下抑霜效果一般,其次是强预冷器由钎焊加工而成,在密集阵列管束表面构造耐高温、抗氧化的表面结构或涂层存在一定难度;③喷射固体颗粒或脉冲气流手段在发动机平台增加额外引气、粒子装置,存在系统较为复杂问题,且脉冲气流有可能对下游压气机等部件稳定工作带来影响。
实验手段是探究紧凑快速强换热内部真实流动换热现象的核心手段之一,也是充分验证紧凑快速强换热器设计技术、掌握其真实工作特性的关键一步。然而,强预冷发动机内部紧凑快速强换热器存在通道狭窄、高温、超低温、高压、参数畸变或强瞬变、振动及热疲劳等条件的多种组合,对真实环境模拟实验及其参数测量提出了严峻挑战。本节针对复杂条件下紧凑快速强换热测试手段及实验验证现状进行了综述。
对于强预冷发动机内部紧凑快速强换热过程而言,实验技术的核心之一在于紧凑空间复杂工况环境下对于流动状态及换热能力的高精度测量。然而,传统接触式测量技术受限于流动通道狭窄且被测换热单元尺度较小而受到应用限制,因此,在微小尺度实验研究中,受部分实验对象极紧凑结构限制,实验过程仅可获取研究对象进出口的参数而忽略内部流场及温度场细节。而随着测量技术水平增加,进一步扩展了流动换热测试细节,其中,最典型的为接触式测量,即在微小通道试验件盖板上钻取小孔,通过引压或埋藏热电偶的方式获得沿程的压力和温度分布。例如,Murray等[234]、北航团队[150,235-236]均基于此对紧凑快速强换热器基本换热单元流动换热机理开展了实验研究;此外,Chen等[167]利用梳状探针获得了紧凑强预冷器进出口温度分布特征。
然而,随着流动换热研究的深入,传统接触式测量由于尺寸及结构等问题将限制空间分辨率及测量误差,已无法完全满足对内部细节的测试需求。为此,研究人员引入了多种非接触式测量手段,以期进一步提升流动换热测试能力,其中,主要手段包括液晶示温技术[81,237]、红外测温技术[238-239]、激光诱导荧光(laser induced fluorescence,LIF)技术[240-241]、粒子图像测速(particle image velocimetry,PIV)技术[242-243]、激光干涉测温[244-245]等,其基本原理与特点如表4所示。基于上述技术方法,研究人员开展了广泛的微小尺度流动换热研究。例如,Xu等[246]利用红外技术测量了微通道热沉表面温度分布;Xia等[242]利用μ-PIV流动显示技术研究微通道热沉内部流场;Eckert等[247]等利用干涉成像方法开展了圆管横掠绕流流动换热研究;Fu等[248]利用PIV对圆管壁面换热环境中流动与换热的交互作用机理开展了实验研究;REL公司Webber联合布里斯托大学Taylor[81]针对强预冷发动机内部紧凑快速强换热研究需求,利用液晶示温技术开展了管排内部圆柱流动换热研究。但需要注意的是,由于紧凑快速强换热器尺度小、结构紧凑、通道长径比大,上述对其内部进行流动换热细节现象捕捉的测试手段也难以直接应用,需进一步基于相似原理通过尺度缩放手段对实验进行设计。此外,受限于紧凑快速强换热器通道狭窄、空间结构复杂,对强预冷器通道狭窄空间内的流动进行多视角成像较为困难。近年来,融合物理信息/机理的人工智能技术在复杂流场重构与可视化中的应用获得了大量关注[249-250],如Raissi[251]、Arzani[252]、Cai[253] 等开展的相关研究分别实现了流场及热边界条件反演,可为今后紧凑快速强换热实验测试手段提供新的思路。
紧凑快速强换热器由于工况多变、内部流动换热特征复杂,上述机理级别实验研究虽然能够对强换热器设计及工作性能预测提供重要理论依据,但其部件实际工作性能至少需要在样机级别、模拟真实复杂工作环境下进行综合验证。为此,国内外研究机构围绕紧凑快速强换热器工作性能需求搭建了不同规模流动换热实验台,并完成了多种构型、多种工质、不同工作条件下的实验研究,本节围绕国内外开展的典型紧凑快速强换热器实验研究进行了综述。
英国REL公司为验证其强预冷器性能,分阶段完成了强预冷器常温及高温实验验证。第一阶段,以实现低温高压超临界氦闭式循环和大气湿度条件为建设目标,REL公司搭建了B9实验系统,该系统由一台罗·罗公司Viper发动机、一套超临界氦闭式循环系统构成[254],强预冷器实验件及联合Viper发动机的常温实验场景如图28(a)、图28(b)所示[110]。其中,Viper发动机可提供约10 kg/s量级的空气流量,通过燃烧液态丁烷可实现发动机在约150 K进气条件下稳定工作,氦闭式循环系统可实现最低温度约140 K、稳定工作流量约1.3 kg/s、压力为152.0 kPa超临界氦持续供给;此外,该实验系统还配置了水滴喷注系统以实现不同湿度环境的模拟。至2014年,B9实验系统已承担了超过700次台架实验和300次强预冷器-发动机匹配实验,支撑了强换热器低温工作性能及整机环境下抑霜技术的实验验证工作[254]。
基于B9的设计运行经验,REL公司在美国国防高级研究计划局(Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, DARPA)的支持下完成了强换热器高温性能验证循环实验系统的研制与建设工作[16]。该循环实验系统由TF2高温来流系统和GSE超临界氦闭式循环系统构成。TF2高温来流系统使用一台带有加力燃烧室的J79涡喷发动机作为高温气源,在J79发动机处于最大加力状态时能够实现Ma=5来流温度环境(约1300 K)的模拟。GSE超临界氦闭式循环系统主要由超临界氦循环压缩机和大功率冷却系统组成,能够将温度高达950 K的氦冷却至室温附近,最大冷却能力达到5 MW,具备2 kg/s、20 MPa超临界氦的持续供给能力。该循环实验系统已成功承担了Ma=3.3和Ma=5来流温度条件下的强换热器高温考核实验[33],在Ma=3.3来流总温模拟实验中,高温燃气流经强预冷器后温度降至约100 ℃,产生了近1.5 MW的换热功率,强预冷器样机实验效能达到99.8%;在图28(c)、图28(d)所示的Ma=5来流总温模拟实验中,REL公司成功验证强预冷器样机可在超高温来流条件下(约1000 ℃)稳定工作,预估完成了100 kW/kg功重比的技术指标。
此外,日本JAXA为满足ATREX及PCTJ发动机对于紧凑快速强换热器性能需求,搭建了基于发动机匹配环境的地面实验验证平台,并开展了多种构型强预冷器在发动机匹配环境下实验验证。该试验台利用高压氦气驱动液氢或液氮冷剂(均处于超临界压力)进入强预冷器,以冷却发动机吸入的室温来流,同时配有甲醇喷射装置探究强预冷器结霜抑制效果。在1992—2003年间,JAXA针对图29(a)所示的ATREX发动机强预冷器开展了大量常温来流实验验证,实验工况空气流量可达约6 kg/s级,可将常温来流降至约200 K[13,23]。通过对多种构型强预冷器对比实验验证,得出所示的Type-Ⅱ型强预冷器具有良好的可靠性及空气总压恢复系数,但换热功率相较设计预期低15%~20%,在此基础上发展的Type-Ⅲ型强预冷器实现减重54.3%,但其压力损失却随着微细管表面结霜而急剧增加,远高于其他构型强预冷器,如图29(b)所示。
在上述基础上,围绕PCTJ构型,日本JAXA进一步为其飞行演示验证发动机S-engine(见图30(a)[255])设计了缩尺矩形强预冷器样机(见图30(b),包含1296根外径为2 mm的薄壁毛细管[256])并开展了匹配条件下常温、高温实验验证。2015年,Taguchi等[257]利用图30所示风洞试验台探究了发动机整机环境下强预冷器的温降性能,以超临界氮为强预冷器冷剂,空气流量约为0.5 kg/s,试验结果表明,约800 K高温空气流经强预冷器后平均温度降至590 K(不同测点温度处于550~630 K之间),实现了210 K温降水平。2018年,Taguchi等[258]在JAXA角田航天中心完成了超临界氢预冷的S-engine发动机Ma=4风洞吹风试验,强预冷器样机入口温度同样约为800 K,但最低出口温度仅达到650 K,温降水平较低,研究人员给出2个可能原因:①强预冷器入口处安装的异物防护板降低了换热功率;②液氢供应管道未完全预冷,导致流入强预冷器样机内的冷剂并非液态,且流量也未达到目标值。为进一步探究超临界氢强预冷器工作性能,Taguchi等[37]基于图30所示直连试验台完成了模拟Ma=4来流总温条件的发动机海平面静态实验,如图30(c)所示。实验中,超临界氢入口温度和压力分别为40 K和2 MPa,空气来流平均温度达到900 K。由于流动存在非均匀性,强预冷器出口温度畸变范围为390~470 K,但平均出口温度仅为430 K,温降达到470 K。此外,高温来流在强预冷器内的压力损失保持在10 kPa左右,总压损失为3.6%。
在国内,北航团队基于上述技术基础分阶段完成了多种构型紧凑快速强换热器样机研制工作,如图31所示。进一步地,为实现对紧凑快速强换热设计技术的综合验证,团队分阶段完成了不同构型紧凑快速强换热器设计研制,搭建了国内领先的综合实验验证平台,并先后完成了多工质、多工况强预冷器性能实验验证。2017年,北航团队[166,235]在国内首次针对微细管阵列结构强换热器模块开展了实验研究,以图31(a)所示的矩形换热模块为实验对象,以超临界氦作为冷却介质,完成了来流800 K的高温实验验证,实现了86.8 kW/h、温降226.2 K的既定技术指标,证明了这种微细管阵列结构紧凑快速强换热器在强预冷发动机上应用的可行性。进一步,为验证强预冷器工作性能,团队在国内率先搭建了基于超临界氦闭式循环的强预冷器高温来流性能验证平台(见图32(a)),实现了8 MPa超临界氦闭式连续供给。针对图31(b)中阿基米德螺线构型强预冷器原理样机,在国内率先完成了模拟Ma=4+来流总温条件1800 s长时实验验证,实现了温降600 K、换热功重比100 kW/kg的先进技术指标[167]。
此外,为验证紧凑快速强换热器对于传统航空燃气涡轮发动机扩包线的适用性,团队完成了模拟Ma=4来流总温条件实验验证,实验平台如图32(b)所示。结果表明,虽然煤油强预冷器实现了功重比约112 kW/kg、总压恢复系数0.93,但受限于煤油有限热沉,预冷所需燃料与发动机化学恰当燃烧所需煤油流量不平衡,存在“热沉缺口”。进一步地,为探究紧凑快速强换热器在匹配环境下工作特性,北航团队于2022年搭建基于涡喷发动机匹配环境的强预冷器实验平台,如图32(c)所示,利用安装在强预冷器后的涡喷发动机,验证以氦、液氮及液态甲烷为冷却工质的强预冷器在复杂匹配环境下的流动换热性能[132,259]。结果表明,采用液氮工质的强预冷器缩尺样机可实现将模拟Ma=3来流总温条件(约600 K)降至约38 K,核心区换热功重比达到60 kW/kg,总温畸变指数7.8%,同时,实验结果表明,由于压气机抽吸作用影响,将导致局部换热能力有所不同;采用液态甲烷作为冷却工质的强预冷器匹配实验中,空气来流平均温度高于Ma=3.5滞止温度(最大值达到764.8 K),实现了约420 K温降,整机和核心换热区功重比的平均值分别达到84.5 kW/kg及116.1 kW/kg。在充分掌握强预冷器匹配工作性能基础上,北航团队完成了基于液态甲烷的强预冷涡轮发动机缩尺样机研制及地面实验验证平台建设,具备国际先进的强预冷发动机实验验证能力,如图32(d)所示。团队完成国内首次模拟Ma=3.7来流总温条件下的基于液态甲烷的强预冷涡轮发动机地面直连实验验证,结果表明,液态甲烷工质强预冷器可实现约480 K温降以保证后端涡轮发动机正常工作,达到了国际领先水平。综上来看,团队在流动换热机理、模拟高马赫数进气高温环境及强预冷器匹配环境开展了大量实验验证,在对整体流动换热性能验证方面具有技术优势,但当前实验验证仍局限在直连实验台环境,缺乏在真实飞行环境下对于强预冷器工作特性的考核验证,后续需进一步开展相关真实飞行环境下实验验证。
此外,根据公开文献,国内其他多个研究机构也同样开展了强预冷器性能实验研究。西安航天动力研究所[158]针对强预冷器样机开展了空气-空气流动换热实验,其中,高温侧来流686 K,结果表明,经典公式对强预冷器换热预测偏差较大,最高可达32.1%。北京动力机械研究所[19]完成了强预冷器Ma=5来流高温条件下换热实验,但实验工质尚未披露。国防科技大学纪佳正[260]通过实验对比分析了图33中3D打印管式强预冷器、钎焊管式强预冷器和板式强预冷器工作性能开展了研究,实验表明,钎焊管式强预冷器单位体积换热功率最大,可达到13.8 MW/m3。
上述实验综合表明,当前适用于强预冷发动机的紧凑快速强换热器已完成了多种常用工质下高温来流及匹配环境实验验证,充分验证了紧凑快速强换热效果及拓展涡轮发动机工作包线、提升性能的可行性。
1) 当前,围绕微小尺度通道流动换热、横掠管束快速强换热等机理问题,已开展了大量理论及实验研究。前者集中于由尺度效应带来的共性问题及超临界工质物性变化和相应的换热恶化/强化等强预冷背景性问题的研究;后者集中于叉排管束流动结构演化、涡脱落频率与激振/共振等问题研究。除微小尺度表面粗糙度摩阻规律等问题尚存在争议外,绝大部分研究结果均对紧凑快速强换热器基本单元设计优化具有重要指导价值。进一步地,在厘清流动换热机理基础上,需结合强预冷发动机实际工作环境及工质,进一步完善高精度经验关联数据库。
2) 紧凑快速强换热器由于尺度跨度大、工质复杂且部分存在易燃易爆风险,其理论研究及验证过程中存在成本较高、风险较大等难题。基于多孔介质模型等简化模型的强换热器快速仿真分析方法及相似分析方法可有效降低前期研究成本及风险,是研究耦合及匹配工作环境下紧凑快速强换热性能的重要手段。
3) 提升设计精度及复杂工程应用环境下实际工作性能是紧凑快速强换热设计的重要目标,当前所发展的基于1D/2D离散的精细化设计方法及考虑加工误差、参数波动等因素的不确定性设计方法可显著提升设计性能准确性及实际性能鲁棒性。此外,针对PCHE、TPMS等换热器形式的拓扑优化具有相当的潜力,但其在强预冷发动机的工程化应用仍显著依赖加工制造水平。
4) 实验验证是综合检验紧凑快速强换热技术性能及其在强预冷发动机中适用性的重要手段,当前围绕不同工质、不同构型紧凑快速强换热器已开展了大量常温实验、模拟高马赫数工况的高温来流实验验证,充分验证了紧凑快速强换热技术在拓展涡轮发动机工作速域、支撑强预冷发动机技术发展的可行性。未来需推进真实装机匹配环境下全温全压实验验证、强预冷器高马赫数飞行实验验证等工作,以进一步提升紧凑快速强换热技术成熟度。
5) 北航团队近年来围绕紧凑快速强换热技术开展了大量理论分析、方法研究及实验验证工作,取得了多项先进的技术成果。目前,已逐步进入技术成熟度提升及整机匹配验证阶段,为强预冷发动机技术发展及应用提供核心支撑。
本文详细介绍了国内外围绕紧凑快速强换热技术所开展的研究工作,主要包括微小尺度紧凑强换热机理、紧凑快速强换热分析及设计方法、紧凑快速强换热实验技术等方面,这些工作为以强预冷器、氢-氦/氦-氦换热器等强预冷发动机内部多工质换热器技术发展及研制提供了关键支撑,本节结合强预冷发动机对于复杂极端热环境下强换热需求探讨了这方面研究所面临的挑战及未来展望。
1) 完善紧凑快速强换热高精度经验关联数据库。强预冷发动机内部强换热过程具有微小尺度、空间超紧凑、极大温度梯度、流动三维性强、强变物性等典型特征,导致传统针对常规尺度及工况发展的经验关联式与紧凑快速强换热器误差较大(前期研究表明基于传统经验关联式的计算结果与实验验证误差达到25%以上),将直接影响紧凑快速强换热器设计准确性,进而影响其在复杂环境下工作性能,为此有必要先从机理角度出发发展流动换热调控分析模型以指导精细化设计方向,进而通过仿真分析及缩尺模型、全尺寸模型实验等手段,针对不同构型、不同工质等特征下紧凑快速强换热过程构建更为完善的流动换热数据库,形成工程可用的基于无量纲参数流动换热经验关联式,以指导紧凑快速强换热高水平设计。
2) 探究真实发动机匹配非均匀环境下紧凑快速强换热器综合性能。强预冷器等紧凑快速强换热器在匹配环境下将受上下游部件(如压气机、进气道等)及安装环境影响,其非均匀及复杂压力梯度特征将显著影响紧凑快速强换热器内部流动均匀性,进而影响其流动换热性能,前期研究表明在进气道-强预冷器-压气机匹配环境下,一体化流道设计将显著影响强预冷器轴向不同位置空气流量分配,进而影响实际换热性能,因此,需着重关注真实匹配非均匀环境下流动换热现象及综合性能。
3) 发展并完善耦合结构强度的紧凑快速强换热设计技术。由于强预冷发动机用紧凑快速强换热器追求极致的高功重比及紧凑度,其存在突出的薄壁微小通道和密集阵列特征,强温度梯度将带来显著的换热器变形热协调问题,反之,结构变形问题也将使真实流动换热过程有别于理想设计状态,这都将给紧凑快速强换热器实际运行过程带来严峻挑战。此外,对于超大长径比的微细管阵列结构而言,较高速气流将会带来显著的流致振动问题,对其流动换热及结构强度均会带来直接影响,应在设计及加工制造过程中重点关注。
4) 关注融合人工智能的紧凑快速强换热分析及设计。随着紧凑快速强换热器工况复杂性提升,以及拓扑优化、TPMS等新手段、新构型的引入,其流动及结构复杂度将显著提升,虽然这种超越传统方法的优化手段和设计理念已经表现出强大的潜力,但同时带来的问题是换热器性能参数复杂度增加。人工智能方法在复杂换热器分析及优化中已展现出巨大的应用潜力,需进一步结合紧凑快速强换热实际需求开展相关手段及方法研究。
5) 发展完善的紧凑快速强换热器实验方法及验证平台。模拟真实高温及流动环境的实验是进行紧凑快速强换热研究和获取关键数据来源最为重要的手段,而高精度实验测试方法和能够模拟真实匹配环境的实验平台是开展相关研究的核心支撑。当前虽已初步完成了紧凑快速强换热器在高温环境下性能实验验证,证实了紧凑快速强换热在空天动力方面重要的工程意义,但在紧凑快速强换热器真实装机匹配环境下全温全压实验验证、狭窄空间复杂结构流动换热精细化流场测试方法等方面仍存在不足,因此需进一步结合强预冷发动机实际工作条件及验证需求,开展更为深入的实验测试手段发展及条件建设。

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2026年第52卷第10期
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doi: 10.13700/j.bh.1001-5965.2025.0518
  • 接收时间:2025-07-24
  • 首发时间:2026-10-30
  • 出版时间:2026-10-31
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  • 收稿日期:2025-07-24
  • 录用日期:2025-09-12
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    1北京航空航天大学 航空发动机研究院,北京 102206
    2中国运载火箭技术研究院 临近空间物理重点实验室,100076
    3北京航空航天大学 航空发动机气动热力国防科技重点实验室,北京 100191

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family
属数
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genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)
属
Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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